'AGENDA 21' it took Bill Clinton

[Soldier4Christ]

7.32.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$3 billion, including about $300 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms.  These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.33.  All countries, particularly developing countries, alone or in regional
or subregional groupings, should be given access to modern techniques of
land-resource management, such as geographical information systems, satellite
photography/imagery and other remote-sensing technologies.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.34.  Environmentally focused training activities in sustainable
land-resources planning and management should be undertaken in all countries,
with developing countries being given assistance through international support
and funding agencies in order to:

    (a)  Strengthen the capacity of national, state/provincial and local
educational research and training institutions to provide formal training of
land-management technicians and professionals;

    (b)  Facilitate the organizational review of government ministries and
agencies responsible for land questions, in order to devise more efficient
mechanisms of land-resource management, and carry out periodic in-service
refresher courses for the managers and staff of such ministries and agencies
in order to familiarize them with up-to-date land-resource-management
technologies;

    (c)  Where appropriate, provide such agencies with modern equipment, such
as computer hardware and software and survey equipment;

    (d)  Strengthen existing programmes and promote an international and
interregional exchange of information and experience in land management
through the establishment of professional associations in land-management
sciences and related activities, such as workshops and seminars.


            D.  Promoting the integrated provision of environmental
                infrastructure:  water, sanitation, drainage and
                solid-waste management

Basis for action

7.35.  The sustainability of urban development is defined by many parameters
relating to the availability of water supplies, air quality and the provision
of environmental infrastructure for sanitation and waste management.  As a
result of the density of users, urbanization, if properly managed, offers
unique opportunities for the supply of sustainable environmental
infrastructure through adequate pricing policies, educational programmes and
equitable access mechanisms that are economically and environmentally sound.
In most developing countries, however, the inadequacy and lack of
environmental infrastructure is responsible for widespread ill-health and a
large number of preventable deaths each year.  In those countries conditions
are set to worsen due to growing needs that exceed the capacity of Governments
to respond adequately.

7.36.  An integrated approach to the provision of environmentally sound
infrastructure in human settlements, in particular for the urban and rural
poor, is an investment in sustainable development that can improve the quality
of life, increase productivity, improve health and reduce the burden of
investments in curative medicine and poverty alleviation.

7.37.  Most of the activities whose management would be improved by an
integrated approach, are covered in Agenda 21 as follows:  chapter 6
(Protecting and promoting human health conditions), chapters 9 (Protecting the
atmosphere), 18 (Protecting the quality and supply of freshwater resources)
and 21 (Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and sewage-related
issues).

Objective

7.38.  The objective is to ensure the provision of adequate environmental
infrastructure facilities in all settlements by the year 2025.  The
achievement of this objective would require that all developing countries
incorporate in their national strategies programmes to build the necessary
technical, financial and human resource capacity aimed at ensuring better
integration of infrastructure and environmental planning by the year 2000.

Activities

7.39.  All countries should assess the environmental suitability of
infrastructure in human settlements, develop national goals for sustainable
management of waste, and implement environmentally sound technology to ensure
that the environment, human health and quality of life are protected.
Settlement infrastructure and environmental programmes designed to promote an
integrated human settlements approach to the planning, development,
maintenance and management of environmental infrastructure (water supply,
sanitation, drainage, solid-waste management) should be strengthened with the
assistance of bilateral and multilateral agencies.  Coordination among these
agencies and with collaboration from international and national
representatives of local authorities, the private sector and community groups
should also be strengthened.  The activities of all agencies engaged in
providing environmental infrastructure should, where possible, reflect an
ecosystem or metropolitan area approach to settlements and should include
monitoring, applied research, capacity-building, transfer of appropriate
technology and technical cooperation among the range of programme activities.

7.40.  Developing countries should be assisted at the national and local
levels in adopting an integrated approach to the provision of water supply,
energy, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste management, and external funding
agencies should ensure that this approach is applied in particular to
environmental infrastructure improvement in informal settlements based on
regulations and standards that take into account the living conditions and
resources of the communities to be served.

7.41.  All countries should, as appropriate, adopt the following principles
for the provision of environmental infrastructure:

    (a)  Adopt policies that minimize if not altogether avoid environmental
damage, whenever possible;

    (b)  Ensure that relevant decisions are preceded by environmental impact
assessments and also take into account the costs of any ecological
consequences;

    (c)  Promote development in accordance with indigenous practices and
adopt technologies appropriate to local conditions;

    (d)  Promote policies aimed at recovering the actual cost of
infrastructure services, while at the same time recognizing the need to find
suitable approaches (including subsidies) to extend basic services to all
households;

    (e)  Seek joint solutions to environmental problems that affect several
localities.

7.42.  The dissemination of information from existing programmes should be
facilitated and encouraged among interested countries and local institutions.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation




cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

7.43.  The Conference secretariat has estimated most of the costs of
implementing the activities of this programme in other chapters.  The
secretariat estimates the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of technical
assistance from the international community grant or concessional terms to be
about $50 million.  These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only
and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.44.  Scientific and technological means within the existing programmes
should be coordinated wherever possible and should:

    (a)  Accelerate research in the area of integrated policies of
environmental infrastructure programmes and projects based on cost/benefit
analysis and overall environmental impact;

    (b)  Promote methods of assessing "effective demand", utilizing
environment and development data as criteria for selecting technology.


(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.45.  With the assistance and support of funding agencies, all countries
should, as appropriate, undertake training and popular participation
programmes aimed at:

    (a)  Raising awareness of the means, approaches and benefits of the
provision of environmental infrastructure facilities, especially among
indigenous people, women, low-income groups and the poor;
                (b)  Developing a cadre of professionals with adequate skills in
integrated infrastructural service planning and maintenance of
resource-efficient, environmentally sound and socially acceptable systems;

    (c)  Strengthening the institutional capacity of local authorities and
administrators in the integrated provision of adequate infrastructure services
in partnership with local communities and the private sector;

    (d)  Adopting appropriate legal and regulatory instruments, including
cross-subsidy arrangements, to extend the benefits of adequate and affordable
environmental infrastructure to unserved population groups, especially the
poor.


              E.  Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in
               human settlements

Basis for action

7.46.  Most of the commercial and non-commercial energy produced today is used
in and for human settlements, and a substantial percentage of it is used by
the household sector.  Developing countries are at present faced with the need
to increase their energy production to accelerate development and raise the
living standards of their populations, while at the same time reducing energy
production costs and energy-related pollution.  Increasing the efficiency of
energy use to reduce its polluting effects and to promote the use of renewable
energies must be a priority in any action taken to protect the urban
environment.

7.47.  Developed countries, as the largest consumers of energy, are faced with
the need for energy planning and management, promoting renewable and alternate
sources of energy, and evaluating the life-cycle costs of current systems and
practices as a result of which many metropolitan areas are suffering from
pervasive air quality problems related to ozone, particulate matters and
carbon monoxide.  The causes have much to do with technological inadequacies
and with an increasing fuel consumption generated by inefficiencies, high
demographic and industrial concentrations and a rapid expansion in the number
of motor vehicles.

7.48.  Transport accounts for about 30 per cent of commercial energy
consumption and for about 60 per cent of total global consumption of liquid
petroleum.  In developing countries, rapid motorization and insufficient
investments in urban-transport planning, traffic management and
infrastructure, are creating increasing problems in terms of accidents and
injury, health, noise, congestion and loss of productivity similar to those
occurring in many developed countries.  All of these problems have a severe
impact on urban populations, particularly the low-income and no-income groups.

Objectives

7.49.  The objectives are to extend the provision of more energy-efficient
technology and alternative/renewable energy for human settlements and to
reduce negative impacts of energy production and use on human health and on
the environment.

Activities

7.50.  The principal activities relevant to this programme area are included
in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere), programme area B, subprogramme 1
(Energy development, efficiency and consumption) and subprogramme 2
(Transportation).

7.51.  A comprehensive approach to human settlements development should
include the promotion of sustainable energy development in all countries, as
follows:

    (a)  Developing countries, in particular, should:
 
    (i)  Formulate national action programmes to promote and support
         reafforestation and national forest regeneration with a view to
         achieving sustained provision of the biomass energy needs of the
         low-income groups in urban areas and the rural poor, in particular
         women and children;

    (ii) Formulate national action programmes to promote integrated
         development of energy-saving and renewable energy technologies,
         particularly for the use of solar, hydro, wind and biomass sources;

   (iii) Promote wide dissemination and commercialization of renewable
         energy technologies through suitable measures, inter alia, fiscal
         and technology transfer mechanisms;

    (iv) Carry out information and training programmes directed at
         manufacturers and users in order to promote energy-saving
         techniques and energy-efficient appliances;

    (b)  International organizations and bilateral donors should:

    (i)  Support developing countries in implementing national energy
         programmes in order to achieve widespread use of energy-saving and
         renewable energy technologies, particularly the use of solar, wind,
         biomass and hydro sources;

    (ii) Provide access to research and development results to increase
         energy-use efficiency levels in human settlements.


cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

7.52.  Promoting efficient and environmentally sound urban transport systems
in all countries should be a comprehensive approach to urban-transport
planning and management.  To this end, all countries should:

    (a)  Integrate land-use and transportation planning to encourage
development patterns that reduce transport demand;

    (b)  Adopt urban-transport programmes favouring high-occupancy public
transport in countries, as appropriate;

    (c)  Encourage non-motorized modes of transport by providing safe
cycleways and footways in urban and suburban centres in countries, as
appropriate;

    (d)  Devote particular attention to effective traffic management,
efficient operation of public transport and maintenance of transport
infrastructure;

    (e)  Promote the exchange of information among countries and
representatives of local and metropolitan areas;

    (f)  Re-evaluate the present consumption and production patterns in order
to reduce the use of energy and national resources.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.53.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs of implementing the
activities of this programme in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere).

(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.54.  In order to enhance the skills of energy service and transport
professionals and institutions, all countries should, as appropriate:

    (a)  Provide on-the-job and other training of government officials,
planners, traffic engineers and managers involved in the energy-service and
transport section;

    (b)  Raise public awareness of the environmental impacts of transport and
travel behaviour through mass media campaigns and support for non-governmental
and community initiatives promoting the use of non-motorized transport, shared
driving and improved traffic safety measures;

    (c)  Strengthen regional, national, state/provincial, and private sector
institutions that provide education and training on energy service and urban
transport planning and management.


              F.  Promoting human settlement planning and management in
               disaster-prone areas

Basis for action

7.55.  Natural disasters cause loss of life, disruption of economic activities
and urban productivity, particularly for highly susceptible low-income groups,
and environmental damage, such as loss of fertile agricultural land and
contamination of water resources, and can lead to major resettlement of
populations.  Over the past two decades, they are estimated to have caused
some 3 million deaths and affected 800 million people.  Global economic losses
have been estimated by the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief
Coordinator to be in the range of $30-50 billion per year.

7.56.  The General Assembly, in resolution 44/236, proclaimed the 1990s as the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction.  The goals of the
Decade 7/ bear relevance to the objectives of the present programme area.

7.57.  In addition, there is an urgent need to address the prevention and
reduction of man-made disasters and/or disasters caused by, inter alia,
industries, unsafe nuclear power generation and toxic wastes (see chapter 6
of Agenda 21).

Objective

7.58.  The objective is to enable all countries, in particular those that are
disaster-prone, to mitigate the negative impact of natural and man-made
disasters on human settlements, national economies and the environment.

Activities

7.59.  Three distinct areas of activity are foreseen under this programme
area, namely, the development of a "culture of safety", pre-disaster planning
and post-disaster reconstruction.

(a) Developing a culture of safety

7.60.  To promote a "culture of safety" in all countries, especially those
that are disaster-prone, the following activities should be carried out:

    (a)  Completing national and local studies on the nature and occurrence
of natural disasters, their impact on people and economic activities, the
effects of inadequate construction and land use in hazard-prone areas, and the
social and economic advantages of adequate pre-disaster planning;

    (b)  Implementing nationwide and local awareness campaigns through all
available media, translating the above knowledge into information easily
comprehensible to the general public and to the populations directly exposed
to hazards;

    (c)  Strengthening, and/or developing global, regional, national and
local early warning systems to alert populations to impending disasters;

    (d)  Identifying industrially based environmental disaster areas at the
national and international levels and implementing strategies aimed at the
rehabilitation of these areas through, inter alia:

    (i)  Restructuring of the economic activities and promoting new job
         opportunities in environmentally sound sectors;

    (ii) Promoting close collaboration between governmental and local
         authorities, local communities and non-governmental organizations
         and private business;

   (iii) Developing and enforcing strict environmental control standards.

(b) Developing pre-disaster planning

7.61.  Pre-disaster planning should form an integral part of human settlement
planning in all countries.  The following should be included:

    (a)  Undertaking complete multi-hazard research into risk and
vulnerability of human settlements and settlement infrastructure, including
water and sewerage, communication and transportation networks, as one type of
risk reduction may increase vulnerability to another (e.g., an
earthquake-resistant house made of wood will be more vulnerable to wind
storms);

    (b)  Developing methodologies for determining risk and vulnerability
within specific human settlements and incorporating risk and vulnerability
reduction into the human settlement planning and management process;

    (c)  Redirecting inappropriate new development and human settlements to
areas not prone to hazards;

    (d)  Preparing guidelines on location, design and operation of
potentially hazardous industries and activities;

    (e)  Developing tools (legal, economic etc.) to encourage
disaster-sensitive development, including means of ensuring that limitations
on development options are not punitive to owners, or incorporate alternative
means of compensation;

    (f)  Further developing and disseminating information on
disaster-resistant building materials and construction technologies for
buildings and public works in general;

    (g)  Developing training programmes for contractors and builders on
disaster-resistant construction methods.  Some programmes should be directed
particularly to small enterprises, which build the great majority of housing
and other small buildings in the developing countries, as well as to the rural
populations, which build their own houses;

    (h)  Developing training programmes for emergency site managers,
non-governmental organizations and community groups which cover all aspects
of disaster mitigation, including urban search and rescue, emergency
communications, early warning techniques, and pre-disaster planning;

    (i)  Developing procedures and practices to enable local communities to
receive information about hazardous installations or situations in these
areas, and facilitate their participation in early warning and disaster
abatement and response procedures and plans;

    (j)  Preparing action plans for the reconstruction of settlements,
especially the reconstruction of community life-lines.

(c) Initiating post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation planning

7.62.  The international community, as a major partner in post-reconstruction
and rehabilitation, should ensure that the countries involved derive the
greatest benefits from the funds allocated by undertaking the following
activities:
 
    (a)  Carrying out research on past experiences on the social and economic
aspects of post-disaster reconstruction and adopting effective strategies and
guidelines for post-disaster reconstruction, with particular focus on
development-focused strategies in the allocation of scarce reconstruction
resources, and on the opportunities that post-disaster reconstruction provides
to introduce sustainable settlement patterns;

                (b)  Preparing and disseminating international guidelines for adaptation
to national and local needs;

    (c)  Supporting efforts of national Governments to initiate contingency
planning, with participation of affected communities, for post-disaster
reconstruction and rehabilitation.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

7.63.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.64.  Scientists and engineers specializing in this field in both developing
and developed countries should collaborate with urban and regional planners
in order to provide the basic knowledge and means to mitigate losses owing to
disasters as well as environmentally inappropriate development.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.65.  Developing countries should conduct training programmes on
disaster-resistant construction methods for contractors and builders, who
build the majority of housing in the developing countries.  This should focus
on the small business enterprises, which build the majority of housing in the
developing countries.

7.66.  Training programmes should be extended to government officials and
planners and community and non-governmental organizations to cover all aspects
of disaster mitigation, such as early warning techniques, pre-disaster
planning and construction, post-disaster construction and rehabilitation.


       G.  Promoting sustainable construction industry activities

Basis for action

7.67.  The activities of the construction sector are vital to the achievement
of the national socio-economic development goals of providing shelter,
infrastructure and employment.  However, they can be a major source of
environmental damage through depletion of the natural resource base,
degradation of fragile eco-zones, chemical pollution and the use of building
materials harmful to human health.

Objectives

7.68.  The objectives are, first, to adopt policies and technologies and to
exchange information on them in order to enable the construction sector to
meet human settlement development goals, while avoiding harmful side-effects
on human health and on the biosphere, and, second, to enhance the
employment-generation capacity of the construction sector.  Governments should
work in close collaboration with the private sector in achieving these
objectives.

Activities

7.69.  All countries should, as appropriate and in accordance with national
plans, objectives and priorities:

    (a)  Establish and strengthen indigenous building materials industry,
based, as much as possible, on inputs of locally available natural resources;

                (b)  Formulate programmes to enhance the utilization of local materials
by the construction sector by expanding technical support and incentive
schemes for increasing the capabilities and economic viability of small-scale
and informal operatives which make use of these materials and traditional
construction techniques;

    (c)  Adopt standards and other regulatory measures which promote the
increased use of energy-efficient designs and technologies and sustainable
utilization of natural resources in an economically and environmentally
appropriate way;

    (d)  Formulate appropriate land-use policies and introduce planning
regulations specially aimed at the protection of eco-sensitive zones against
physical disruption by construction and construction-related activities;

    (e)  Promote the use of labour-intensive construction and maintenance
technologies which generate employment in the construction sector for the
underemployed labour force found in most large cities, while at the same time
promoting the development of skills in the construction sector;

    (f)  Develop policies and practices to reach the informal sector and
self-help housing builders by adopting measures to increase the affordability
of building materials on the part of the urban and rural poor, through,
inter alia, credit schemes and bulk procurement of building materials for sale
to small-scale builders and communities.

cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

7.70.  All countries should:

    (a)  Promote the free exchange of information on the entire range of
environmental and health aspects of construction, including the development
and dissemination of databases on the adverse environmental effects of
building materials through the collaborative efforts of the private and public
sectors;

    (b)  Promote the development and dissemination of databases on the
adverse environmental and health effects of building materials and introduce
legislation and financial incentives to promote recycling of energy-intensive
materials in the construction industry and conservation of waste energy in
building-materials production methods;

    (c)  Promote the use of economic instruments, such as product charges,
to discourage the use of construction materials and products that create
pollution during their life cycle;

    (d)  Promote information exchange and appropriate technology transfer
among all countries, with particular attention to developing countries, for
resource management in construction, particularly for non-renewable resources;

    (e)  Promote research in construction industries and related activities,
and establish and strengthen institutions in this sector.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.71.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$40 billion, including about $4 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms.  These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.72.  Developing countries should be assisted by international support and
funding agencies in upgrading the technical and managerial capacities of the
small entrepreneur and the vocational skills of operatives and supervisors in
the building materials industry, using a variety of training methods.  These
countries should also be assisted in developing programmes to encourage the
use of non-waste and clean technologies through appropriate transfer of
technology.

7.73.  General education programmes should be developed in all countries, as
appropriate, to increase builder awareness of available sustainable
technologies.

7.74.  Local authorities are called upon to play a pioneering role in
promoting the increased use of environmentally sound building materials and
construction technologies, e.g., by pursuing an innovative procurement policy.



         H.  Promoting human resource development and capacity-building
             for human settlements development

Basis for action

7.75.  Most countries, in addition to shortcomings in the availability of
specialized expertise in the areas of housing, settlement management, land
management, infrastructure, construction, energy, transport, and pre-disaster
planning and reconstruction, face three cross-sectoral human resource
development and capacity-building shortfalls.  First is the absence of an
enabling policy environment capable of integrating the resources and
activities of the public sector, the private sector and the community, or
social sector; second is the weakness of specialized training and research
institutions; and third is the insufficient capacity for technical training
and assistance for low-income communities, both urban and rural.

Objective

7.76.  The objective is to improve human resource development and
capacity-building in all countries by enhancing the personal and institutional
capacity of all actors, particularly indigenous people and women, involved in
human settlement development.  In this regard, account should be taken of
traditional cultural practices of indigenous people and their relationship to
the environment.

Activities

7.77.  Specific human resource development and capacity-building activities
have been built into each of the programme areas of this chapter.  More
generally, however, additional steps should be taken to reinforce those
activities.  In order to do so, all countries, as appropriate, should take the
following action:

    (a)  Strengthening the development of human resources and of capacities
of public sector institutions through technical assistance and international
cooperation so as to achieve by the year 2000 substantial improvement in the
efficiency of governmental activities;

    (b)  Creating an enabling policy environment supportive of the
partnership between the public, private and community sectors;

    (c)  Providing enhanced training and technical assistance to
institutions providing training for technicians, professionals and
administrators, and appointed, elected and professional members of local
governments and strengthening their capacity to address priority training
needs, particularly in regard to social, economic and environmental aspects
of human settlements development;

    (d)  Providing direct assistance for human settlement development at the
community level, inter alia, by:

    (i)  Strengthening and promoting programmes for social mobilization and
         raising awareness of the potential of women and youth in human
         settlements activities;
    (ii)             Facilitating coordination of the activities of women, youth,
         community groups and non-governmental organizations in human
         settlements development;

   (iii) Promoting research on women's programmes and other groups, and
         evaluating progress made with a view to identifying bottlenecks and
         needed assistance;

    (e)  Promoting the inclusion of integrated environmental management into
general local government activities.

cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

7.78.  Both international organizations and non-governmental organizations
should support the above activities by, inter alia, strengthening subregional
training institutions, providing updated training materials and disseminating
the results of successful human resource and capacity-building activities,
programmes and projects.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.79.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$65 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.80.  Both formal training and non-formal types of human resource development
and capacity-building programmes should be combined, and use should be made
of user-oriented training methods, up-to-date training materials and modern
audio-visual communication systems.


                                  Notes

    1/   No aggregate figures are available on internal expenditure or
official development assistance on human settlements.  However, data available
in the World Development Report, 1991, for 16 low-income developing countries
show that the percentage of central government expenditure on housing,
amenities and social security and welfare for 1989 averaged 5.6 per cent, with
a high of 15.1 per cent in the case of Sri Lanka, which has embarked on a
vigorous housing programme.  In OECD industrialized countries, during the same
year, the percentage of central government expenditure on housing, amenities
and social security and welfare ranged from a minimum of 29.3 per cent to a
maximum of 49.4 per cent, with an average of 39 per cent (World Bank, World
Development Report, 1991, World Development Indicators, table 11
(Washington, D.C., 1991)).

    2/   See the report of the Director-General for Development and
International Economic Cooperation containing preliminary statistical data on
operational activities of the United Nations system for 1988
(A/44/324-E/1989/106/Add.4, annex).

    3/   World Bank, Annual Report, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991).

    4/   UNDP, "Reported investment commitments related to UNDP-assisted
projects, 1988", table 1, "Sectoral distribution of investment commitment in
1988-1989".

    5/   A pilot programme of this type, the City Data Programme (CDP), is
already in operation in the United Nations Centre on Human Settlements
(Habitat) aimed at the production and dissemination to participating cities
of microcomputer application software designed to store, process and retrieve
city data for local, national and international exchange and dissemination.

                6/   This calls for integrated land-resource management policies, which
are also addressed in chapter 10 of Agenda 21 (Integrated approach to planning
and management of land resources).

    7/   The goals of the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction, set out in the annex to General Assembly resolution 44/236, are as
follows:

    (a)  To improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of
natural disasters expeditiously and effectively, paying special attention to
assisting developing countries in the assessment of disaster damage potential
and in the establishment of early warning systems and disaster-resistant
structures when and where needed;

    (b)  To devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying
existing scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account the cultural
and economic diversity among nations;

    (c)  To foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at closing
critical gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and property;

    (d)  To disseminate existing and new technical information related to
measures for the assessment, prediction and mitigation of natural disasters;

    (e)  To develop measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention and
mitigation of natural disasters through programmes of technical assistance and
technology transfer, demonstration projects, and education and training,
tailored to specific disasters and locations, and to evaluate the
effectiveness of those programmes.


END OF CHAPTER 7

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Chapter 8

INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN DECISION-MAKING

INTRODUCTION

8.1.  This chapter contains the following programme areas:

     (a)   Integrating environment and development at the policy, planning
and management levels;

     (b)   Providing an effective legal and regulatory framework;

     (c)   Making effective use of economic instruments and market and other
incentives;

     (d)   Establishing systems for integrated environmental and economic
accounting.


                             PROGRAMME AREAS

                A.  Integrating environment and development at the policy,
                    planning and management levels

Basis for action

8.2.  Prevailing systems for decision-making in many countries tend to
separate economic, social and environmental factors at the policy, planning
and management levels.  This influences the actions of all groups in society,
including Governments, industry and individuals, and has important
implications for the efficiency and sustainability of development.  An
adjustment or even a fundamental reshaping of decision-making, in the light
of country-specific conditions, may be necessary if environment and
development is to be put at the centre of economic and political
decision-making, in effect achieving a full integration of these factors.  In
recent years, some Governments have also begun to make significant changes in
the institutional structures of government in order to enable more systematic
consideration of the environment when decisions are made on economic, social,
fiscal, energy, agricultural, transportation, trade and other policies, as
well as the implications of policies in these areas for the environment.  New
forms of dialogue are also being developed for achieving better integration
among national and local government, industry, science, environmental groups
and the public in the process of developing effective approaches to
environment and development.  The responsibility for bringing about changes
lies with Governments in partnership with the private sector and local
authorities, and in collaboration with national, regional and international
organizations, including in particular UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank.
Exchange of experience between countries can also be significant.  National
plans, goals and objectives, national rules, regulations and law, and the
specific situation in which different countries are placed are the overall
framework in which such integration takes place.  In this context, it must be
borne in mind that environmental standards may pose severe economic and social
costs if they are uniformly applied in developing countries.

Objectives

8.3.  The overall objective is to improve or restructure the decision-making
process so that consideration of socio-economic and environmental issues is
fully integrated and a broader range of public participation assured.
Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance
with their prevailing conditions, needs, national plans, policies and
programmes, the following objectives are proposed:

    (a)  To conduct a national review of economic, sectoral and environmental
policies, strategies and plans to ensure the progressive integration of
environmental and developmental issues;

    (b)  To strengthen institutional structures to allow the full integration
of environmental and developmental issues, at all levels of decision-making;

    (c)  To develop or improve mechanisms to facilitate the involvement of
concerned individuals, groups and organizations in decision-making at all
levels;

    (d)  To establish domestically determined procedures to integrate
environment and development issues in decision-making.

Activities

(a) Improving decision-making processes

8.4.  The primary need is to integrate environmental and developmental
decision-making processes.  To do this, Governments should conduct a national
review and, where appropriate, improve the processes of decision-making so as
to achieve the progressive integration of economic, social and environmental
issues in the pursuit of development that is economically efficient, socially
equitable and responsible and environmentally sound.  Countries will develop
their own priorities in accordance with their national plans, policies and
programmes for the following activities:

    (a)  Ensuring the integration of economic, social and environmental
considerations in decision-making at all levels and in all ministries;

    (b)  Adopting a domestically formulated policy framework that reflects
a long-term perspective and cross-sectoral approach as the basis for
decisions, taking account of the linkages between and within the various
political, economic, social and environmental issues involved in the
development process;

    (c)  Establishing domestically determined ways and means to ensure the
coherence of sectoral, economic, social and environmental policies, plans and
policy instruments, including fiscal measures and the budget; these mechanisms
should apply at various levels and bring together those interested in the
development process;

    (d)  Monitoring and evaluating the development process systematically,
conducting regular reviews of the state of human resources development,
economic and social conditions and trends, the state of the environment and
natural resources; this could be complemented by annual environment and
development reviews, with a view to assessing sustainable development
achievements by the various sectors and departments of government;
                (e)  Ensuring transparency of, and accountability for, the environmental
implications of economic and sectoral policies;

    (f)  Ensuring access by the public to relevant information, facilitating
the reception of public views and allowing for effective participation.

(b) Improving planning and management systems

8.5.  To support a more integrated approach to decision-making, the data
systems and analytical methods used to support such decision-making processes
may need to be improved.  Governments, in collaboration, where appropriate,
with national and international organizations, should review the status of the
planning and management system and, where necessary, modify and strengthen
procedures so as to facilitate the integrated consideration of social,
economic and environmental issues.  Countries will develop their own
priorities in accordance with their national plans, policies and programmes
for the following activities:

    (a)  Improving the use of data and information at all stages of planning
and management, making systematic and simultaneous use of social, economic,
developmental, ecological and environmental data; analysis should stress
interactions and synergisms; a broad range of analytical methods should be
encouraged so as to provide various points of view;

    (b)  Adopting comprehensive analytical procedures for prior and
simultaneous assessment of the impacts of decisions, including the impacts
within and among the economic, social and environmental spheres; these
procedures should extend beyond the project level to policies and programmes;
analysis should also include assessment of costs, benefits and risks;

    (c)  Adopting flexible and integrative planning approaches that allow the
consideration of multiple goals and enable adjustment of changing needs;
integrative area approaches at the ecosystem or watershed level can assist in
this approach;

    (d)  Adopting integrated management systems, particularly for the
management of natural resources; traditional or indigenous methods should be
studied and considered wherever they have proved effective; women's
traditional roles should not be marginalized as a result of the introduction
of new management systems;

    (e)  Adopting integrated approaches to sustainable development at the
regional level, including transboundary areas, subject to the requirements of
particular circumstances and needs;

    (f)  Using policy instruments (legal/regulatory and economic) as a tool
for planning and management, seeking incorporation of efficiency criteria in
decisions; instruments should be regularly reviewed and adapted to ensure that
they continue to be effective;

    (g)  Delegating planning and management responsibilities to the lowest
level of public authority consistent with effective action; in particular the
advantages of effective and equitable opportunities for participation by women
should be discussed;

    (h)  Establishing procedures for involving local communities in
contingency planning for environmental and industrial accidents, and
maintaining an open exchange of information on local hazards.

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(c) Data and information

8.6.  Countries could develop systems for monitoring and evaluation of
progress towards achieving sustainable development by adopting indicators that
measure changes across economic, social and environmental dimensions.

(d) Adopting a national strategy for sustainable development

8.7.  Governments, in cooperation, where appropriate, with international
organizations, should adopt a national strategy for sustainable development
based on, inter alia, the implementation of decisions taken at the Conference,
particularly in respect of Agenda 21.  This strategy should build upon and
harmonize the various sectoral economic, social and environmental policies and
plans that are operating in the country.  The experience gained through
existing planning exercises such as national reports for the Conference,
national conservation strategies and environment action plans should be fully
used and incorporated into a country-driven sustainable development strategy.
Its goals should be to ensure socially responsible economic development while
protecting the resource base and the environment for the benefit of future
generations.  It should be developed through the widest possible
participation.  It should be based on a thorough assessment of the current
situation and initiatives.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

8.8.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Researching environment and development interactions

8.9.  Governments, in collaboration with the national and international
scientific community and in cooperation with international organizations, as
appropriate, should intensify efforts to clarify the interactions between and
within social, economic and environmental considerations.  Research should be
undertaken with the explicit objective of assisting policy decisions and
providing recommendations on improving management practices.

(c) Enhancing education and training

8.10.  Countries, in cooperation, where appropriate, with national, regional
or international organizations, should ensure that essential human resources
exist, or be developed, to undertake the integration of environment and
development at various stages of the decision-making and implementation
process.  To do this, they should improve education and technical training,
particularly for women and girls, by including interdisciplinary approaches,
as appropriate, in technical, vocational, university and other curricula.
They should also undertake systematic training of government personnel,
planners and managers on a regular basis, giving priority to the requisite
integrative approaches and planning and management techniques that are suited
to country-specific conditions.

(d) Promoting public awareness

8.11.  Countries, in cooperation with national institutions and groups, the
media and the international community, should promote awareness in the public
at large, as well as in specialized circles, of the importance of considering
environment and development in an integrated manner, and should establish
mechanisms for facilitating a direct exchange of information and views with
the public.  Priority should be given to highlighting the responsibilities and
potential contributions of different social groups.

(e) Strengthen national institutional capacity

8.12.  Governments, in cooperation, where appropriate, with international
organizations, should strengthen national institutional capability and
capacity to integrate social, economic, developmental and environmental issues
at all levels of development decision-making and implementation.  Attention
should be given to moving away from narrow sectoral approaches, progressing
towards full cross-sectoral coordination and cooperation.


        B.  Providing an effective legal and regulatory framework
Basis for action

8.13.  Laws and regulations suited to country-specific conditions are among
the most important instruments for transforming environment and development
policies into action, not only through "command and control" methods, but also
as a normative framework for economic planning and market instruments.  Yet,
although the volume of legal texts in this field is steadily increasing, much
of the law-making in many countries seems to be ad hoc and piecemeal, or has
not been endowed with the necessary institutional machinery and authority for
enforcement and timely adjustment.

8.14.  While there is continuous need for law improvement in all countries,
many developing countries have been affected by shortcomings of laws and
regulations.  To effectively integrate environment and development in the
policies and practices of each country, it is essential to develop and
implement integrated, enforceable and effective laws and regulations that are
based upon sound social, ecological, economic and scientific principles.  It
is equally critical to develop workable programmes to review and enforce
compliance with the laws, regulations and standards that are adopted.
Technical support may be needed for many countries to accomplish these goals.
Technical cooperation requirements in this field include legal information,
advisory services and specialized training and institutional
capacity-building.

8.15.  The enactment and enforcement of laws and regulations (at the regional,
national, state/provincial or local/municipal level) are also essential for
the implementation of most international agreements in the field of
environment and development, as illustrated by the frequent treaty obligation
to report on legislative measures.  The survey of existing agreements
undertaken in the context of conference preparations has indicated problems
of compliance in this respect, and the need for improved national
implementation and, where appropriate, related technical assistance.  In
developing their national priorities, countries should take account of their
international obligations.

Objectives

8.16.  The overall objective is to promote, in the light of country-specific
conditions, the integration of environment and development policies through
appropriate legal and regulatory policies, instruments and enforcement
mechanisms at the national, state, provincial and local level.  Recognizing
that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance with their
needs and national and, where appropriate, regional plans, policies and
programmes, the following objectives are proposed:

    (a)  To disseminate information on effective legal and regulatory
innovations in the field of environment and development, including appropriate
instruments and compliance incentives, with a view to encouraging their wider
use and adoption at the national, state, provincial and local level;

    (b)  To support countries that request it in their national efforts to
modernize and strengthen the policy and legal framework of governance for
sustainable development, having due regard for local social values and
infrastructures;

    (c)  To encourage the development and implementation of national, state,
provincial and local programmes that assess and promote compliance and respond
appropriately to non-compliance.

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Activities

(a) Making laws and regulations more effective

8.17.  Governments, with the support, where appropriate, of competent
international organizations, should regularly assess the laws and regulations
enacted and the related institutional/administrative machinery established at
the national/state and local/municipal level in the field of environment and
sustainable development, with a view to rendering them effective in practice.
Programmes for this purpose could include the promotion of public awareness,
preparation and distribution of guidance material, and specialized training,
including workshops, seminars, education programmes and conferences, for
public officials who design, implement, monitor and enforce laws and
regulations.

(b) Establishing judicial and administrative procedures

8.18.  Governments and legislators, with the support, where appropriate, of
competent international organizations, should establish judicial and
administrative procedures for legal redress and remedy of actions affecting
environment and development that may be unlawful or infringe on rights under
the law, and should provide access to individuals, groups and organizations
with a recognized legal interest.

(c) Providing legal reference and support services

8.19.  Competent intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations could
cooperate to provide Governments and legislators, upon request, with an
integrated programme of environment and development law (sustainable
development law) services, carefully adapted to the specific requirements of
the recipient legal and administrative systems.  Such systems could usefully
include assistance in the preparation of comprehensive inventories and reviews
of national legal systems.  Past experience has demonstrated the usefulness
of combining specialized legal information services with legal expert advice.
Within the United Nations system, closer cooperation among all agencies
concerned would avoid duplication of databases and facilitate division of
labour.  These agencies could examine the possibility and merit of performing
reviews of selected national legal systems.

(d) Establishing a cooperative training network for sustainable development
    law

8.20.  Competent international and academic institutions could, within agreed
frameworks, cooperate to provide, especially for trainees from developing
countries, postgraduate programmes and in-service training facilities in
environment and development law.  Such training should address both the
effective application and the progressive improvement of applicable laws, the
related skills of negotiating, drafting and mediation, and the training of
trainers.  Intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations already active
in this field could cooperate with related university programmes to harmonize
curriculum planning and to offer an optimal range of options to interested
Governments and potential sponsors.

(e) Developing effective national programmes for reviewing and enforcing
    compliance with national, state, provincial and local laws on
    environment and development

8.21.  Each country should develop integrated strategies to maximize
compliance with its laws and regulations relating to sustainable development,
with assistance from international organizations and other countries as
appropriate.  The strategies could include:

    (a)  Enforceable, effective laws, regulations and standards that are
based on sound economic, social and environmental principles and appropriate
risk assessment, incorporating sanctions designed to punish violations, obtain
redress and deter future violations;

    (b)  Mechanisms for promoting compliance;

    (c)  Institutional capacity for collecting compliance data, regularly
reviewing compliance, detecting violations, establishing enforcement
priorities, undertaking effective enforcement, and conducting periodic
evaluations of the effectiveness of compliance and enforcement programmes;

    (d)  Mechanisms for appropriate involvement of individuals and groups in
the development and enforcement of laws and regulations on environment and
development.

(f) National monitoring of legal follow-up to international instruments
8.22.  Contracting parties to international agreements, in consultation with
    the appropriate secretariats of relevant international conventions as
    appropriate, should improve practices and procedures for collecting
    information on legal and regulatory measures taken.  Contracting parties to
    international agreements could undertake sample surveys of domestic follow-up
    action subject to agreement by the sovereign States concerned.


Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

8.23.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$6 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

8.24.  The programme relies essentially on a continuation of ongoing work for
legal data collection, translation and assessment.  Closer cooperation between
existing databases may be expected to lead to better division of labour
(e.g., in geographical coverage of national legislative gazettes and other
reference sources) and to improved standardization and compatibility of data,
as appropriate.

(c) Human resource development

8.25.  Participation in training is expected to benefit practitioners from
developing countries and to enhance training opportunities for women.  Demand
for this type of postgraduate and in-service training is known to be high.
The seminars, workshops and conferences on review and enforcement that have
been held to date have been very successful and well attended.  The purpose
of these efforts is to develop resources (both human and institutional) to
design and implement effective programmes to continuously review and enforce
national and local laws, regulations and standards on sustainable development.

(d) Strengthening legal and institutional capacity

8.26.  A major part of the programme should be oriented towards improving the
legal-institutional capacities of countries to cope with national problems of
governance and effective law-making and law-applying in the field of
environment and sustainable development.  Regional centres of excellence could
be designated and supported to build up specialized databases and training
facilities for linguistic/cultural groups of legal systems.


             C.  Making effective use of economic instruments and market
                 and other incentives

Basis for action

8.27.  Environmental law and regulation are important but cannot alone be
expected to deal with the problems of environment and development.  Prices,
markets and governmental fiscal and economic policies also play a
complementary role in shaping attitudes and behaviour towards the environment.

8.28.  During the past several years, many Governments, primarily in
industrialized countries but also in Central and Eastern Europe and in
developing countries, have been making increasing use of economic approaches,
including those that are market-oriented.  Examples include the polluter-pays
principle and the more recent natural-resource-user-pays concept.

8.29.  Within a supportive international and national economic context and
given the necessary legal and regulatory framework, economic and
market-oriented approaches can in many cases enhance capacity to deal with the
issues of environment and development.  This would be achieved by providing
cost-effective solutions, applying integrated pollution prevention control,
promoting technological innovation and influencing environmental behaviour,
as well as providing financial resources to meet sustainable development
objectives.

8.30.  What is needed is an appropriate effort to explore and make more
effective and widespread use of economic and market-oriented approaches within
a broad framework of development policies, law and regulation suited to
country-specific conditions as part of a general transition to economic and
environmental policies that are supportive and mutually reinforcing.

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Objectives

8.31.  Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in
accordance with their needs and national plans, policies and programmes, the
challenge is to achieve significant progress in the years ahead in meeting
three fundamental objectives:

    (a)  To incorporate environmental costs in the decisions of producers and
consumers, to reverse the tendency to treat the environment as a "free good"
and to pass these costs on to other parts of society, other countries, or to
future generations;

     (b)  To move more fully towards integration of social and environmental
costs into economic activities, so that prices will appropriately reflect the
relative scarcity and total value of resources and contribute towards the
prevention of environmental degradation;

     (c)  To include, wherever appropriate, the use of market principles in
the framing of economic instruments and policies to pursue sustainable
development.

Activities

(a)  Improving or reorienting governmental policies

8.32.  In the near term, Governments should consider gradually building on
experience with economic instruments and market mechanisms by undertaking to
reorient their policies, keeping in mind national plans, priorities and
objectives, in order to:

     (a)  Establish effective combinations of economic, regulatory and
voluntary (self-regulatory) approaches;

     (b)  Remove or reduce those subsidies that do not conform with
sustainable development objectives;

     (c)  Reform or recast existing structures of economic and fiscal
incentives to meet environment and development objectives;

     (d)  Establish a policy framework that encourages the creation of new
markets in pollution control and environmentally sounder resource management;

     (e)  Move towards pricing consistent with sustainable development
objectives.

8.33.  In particular, Governments should explore, in cooperation with business
and industry, as appropriate, how effective use can be made of economic
instruments and market mechanisms in the following areas:

     (a)  Issues related to energy, transportation, agriculture and forestry,
water, wastes, health, tourism and tertiary services;

     (b)  Global and transboundary issues;

     (c)  The development and introduction of environmentally sound technology
and its adaptation, diffusion and transfer to developing countries in
conformity with chapter 34.

(b)  Taking account of the particular circumstances of developing countries
     and countries with economies in transition

8.34.  A special effort should be made to develop applications of the use of
economic instruments and market mechanisms geared to the particular needs of
developing countries and countries with economies in transition, with the
assistance of regional and international economic and environmental
organizations and, as appropriate, non-governmental research institutes, by:

     (a)  Providing technical support to those countries on issues relating
to the application of economic instruments and market mechanisms;

     (b)  Encouraging regional seminars and, possibly, the development of
regional centres of expertise.

(c)  Creating an inventory of effective uses of economic instruments and
     market mechanisms

8.35.  Given the recognition that the use of economic instruments and market
mechanisms is relatively recent, exchange of information about different
countries' experiences with such approaches should be actively encouraged.
In this regard, Governments should encourage the use of existing means of
information exchange to look at effective uses of economic instruments.

(d)  Increasing understanding of the role of economic instruments and market
     mechanisms

8.36.  Governments should encourage research and analysis on effective uses
of economic instruments and incentives with the assistance and support of
regional and international economic and environmental organizations, as well
as non-governmental research institutes, with a focus on such key issues as:

     (a)  The role of environmental taxation suited to national conditions;

     (b)  The implications of economic instruments and incentives for
competitiveness and international trade, and potential needs for appropriate
future international cooperation and coordination;

     (c)  The possible social and distributive implications of using various
instruments.

(e)  Establishing a process for focusing on pricing

8.37.  The theoretical advantages of using pricing policies, where
appropriate, need to be better understood, and accompanied by greater
understanding of what it means to take significant steps in this direction.
Processes should therefore be initiated, in cooperation with business,
industry, large enterprises, transnational corporations, as well as other
social groups, as appropriate, at both the national and international levels,
to examine:

     (a)  The practical implications of moving towards greater reliance on
pricing that internalize environmental costs appropriate to help achieve
sustainable development objectives;

     (b)  The implications for resource pricing in the case of
resource-exporting countries, including the implications of such pricing
policies for developing countries;

     (c)  The methodologies used in valuing environmental costs.

(f)  Enhancing understanding of sustainable development economics

8.38.  Increased interest in economic instruments, including market
mechanisms, also requires a concerted effort to improve understanding of
sustainable development economics by:

     (a)  Encouraging institutions of higher learning to review their
curricula and strengthen studies in sustainable development economics;

     (b)  Encouraging regional and international economic organizations and
non-governmental research institutes with expertise in this area to provide
training sessions and seminars for government officials;

     (c)  Encouraging business and industry, including large industrial
enterprises and transnational corporations with expertise in environmental
matters, to organize training programmes for the private sector and other
groups.

Means of implementation

8.39.  This programme involves adjustments or reorientation of policies on the
part of Governments.  It also involves international and regional economic and
environmental organizations and agencies with expertise in this area,
including transnational corporations.

(a)  Financing and cost evaluation

8.40.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$5 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.


               D.  Establishing systems for integrated environmental and
                   economic accounting

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Basis for action

8.41.  A first step towards the integration of sustainability into economic
management is the establishment of better measurement of the crucial role of
the environment as a source of natural capital and as a sink for by-products
generated during the production of man-made capital and other human
activities.  As sustainable development encompasses social, economic and
environmental dimensions, it is also important that national accounting
procedures are not restricted to measuring the production of goods and
services that are conventionally remunerated.  A common framework needs to be
developed whereby the contributions made by all sectors and activities of
society, that are not included in the conventional national accounts, are
included, to the extent consistent with sound theory and practicability, in
satellite accounts.  A programme to develop national systems of integrated
environmental and economic accounting in all countries is proposed.

Objectives

8.42.  The main objective is to expand existing systems of national economic
accounts in order to integrate environment and social dimensions in the
accounting framework, including at least satellite systems of accounts for
natural resources in all member States.  The resulting systems of integrated
environmental and economic accounting (IEEA) to be established in all member
States at the earliest date should be seen as a complement to, rather than a
substitute for, traditional national accounting practices for the foreseeable
future.  IEEAs would be designed to play an integral part in the national
development decision-making process.  National accounting agencies should work
in close collaboration with national environmental statistics as well as the
geographic and natural resource departments.  The definition of economically
active could be expanded to include people performing productive but unpaid
tasks in all countries.  This would enable their contribution to be adequately
measured and taken into account in decision-making.

Activities

(a)  Strengthening international cooperation

8.43.  The Statistical Office of the United Nations Secretariat should:

     (a)  Make available to all member States the methodologies contained in
the SNA Handbook on Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting;

     (b)  In collaboration with other relevant United Nations organizations,
further develop, test, refine and then standardize the provisional concepts
and methods such as those proposed by the SNA Handbook, keeping member States
informed of the status of the work throughout this process;

     (c)  Coordinate, in close cooperation with other international
organizations, the training of national accountants, environmental
statisticians and national technical staff in small groups for the
establishment, adaptation and development of national IEEAs.

8.44.  The Department of Economic and Social Development of the United Nations
Secretariat, in close collaboration with other relevant United Nations
organizations, should:

     (a)  Support, in all member States, the utilization of sustainable
development indicators in national economic and social planning and
decision-making practices, with a view to ensuring that IEEAs are usefully
integrated in economic development planning at the national level;

     (b)  Promote improved environmental and economic and social data
collection.

(b)  Strengthening national accounting systems

8.45.  At the national level, the programme could be adopted mainly by the
agencies dealing with national accounts, in close cooperation with
environmental statistics and natural resource departments, with a view to
assisting national economic analysts and decision makers in charge of national
economic planning.  National institutions should play a crucial role not only
as the depositary of the system but also in its adaptation, establishment and
continuous use.  Unpaid productive work such as domestic work and child care
should be included, where appropriate, in satellite national accounts and
economic statistics.  Time-use surveys could be a first step in the process
of developing these satellite accounts.

(c)  Establishing an assessment process

8.46.  At the international level, the Statistical Commission should assemble
and review experience and advise member States on technical and methodological
issues related to the further development and implementation of IEEAs in
member States.

8.47.  Governments should seek to identify and consider measures to correct
price distortions arising from environmental programmes affecting land, water,
energy and other natural resources.

8.48.  Governments should encourage corporations:

     (a)  To provide relevant environmental information through transparent
reporting to shareholders, creditors, employees, governmental authorities,
consumers and the public;

     (b)  To develop and implement methods and rules for accounting for
sustaining development.

(d)  Strengthening data and information collection

8.49.  National Governments could consider implementing the necessary
enhancement in data collection to set in place national IEEAs with a view to
contributing pragmatically to sound economic management.  Major efforts should
be made to augment the capacity to collect and analyse environmental data and
information and to integrate it with economic data, including gender
disaggregated data.  Efforts should also be made to develop physical
environmental accounts.  International donor agencies should consider
financing the development of intersectoral data banks to help ensure that
national planning for sustainable development is based on precise, reliable
and effective information and is suited to national conditions.

(e)  Strengthening technical cooperation

8.50.  The Statistical Office of the United Nations Secretariat, in close
collaboration with relevant United Nations organizations, should strengthen
existing mechanisms for technical cooperation among countries.  This should
also include exchange of experience in the establishment of IEEAs,
particularly in connection with the valuation of non-marketed natural
resources and standardization in data collection.  The cooperation of business
and industry, including large industrial enterprises and transnational
corporations with experience in valuation of such resources, should also be
sought.


Means of implementation

(a)  Financing and cost evaluation

8.51.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$2 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b)  Strengthening institutions

8.52.  To ensure the application of IEEAs:

     (a)  National institutions in developing countries could be strengthened
to ensure the effective integration of environment and development at the
planning and decision-making levels;

     (b)  The Statistical Office should provide the necessary technical
support to member States, in close collaboration with the assessment process
to be established by the Statistical Commission; the Statistical Office should
provide appropriate support for establishing IEEAs, in collaboration with
relevant United Nations agencies.

(c)  Enhancing the use of information technology

8.53.  Guidelines and mechanisms could be developed and agreed upon for the
adaptation and diffusion of information technologies to developing countries.
State-of-the-art data management technologies should be adopted for the most
efficient and widespread use of IEEAs.

(d)  Strengthening national capacity

8.54.  Governments, with the support of the international community, should
strengthen national institutional capacity to collect, store, organize, assess
and use data in decision-making.  Training in all areas related to the
establishment of IEEAs, and at all levels, will be required, especially in
developing countries.  This should include technical training of those
involved in economic and environmental analysis, data collection and national
accounting, as well as training decision makers to use such information in a
pragmatic and appropriate way.


END OF CHAPTER 8

[Soldier4Christ]

Chapter 9

                      PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE


                              INTRODUCTION

9.1.  Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional endeavour
involving various sectors of economic activity.  The options and measures
described in the present chapter are recommended for consideration and, as
appropriate, implementation by Governments and other bodies in their efforts
to protect the atmosphere.

9.2.  It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this chapter are
also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985 Vienna Convention
for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as amended, the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and other international, including
regional, instruments.  In the case of activities covered by such agreements,
it is understood that the recommendations contained in this chapter do not
oblige any Government to take measures which exceed the provisions of these
legal instruments.  However, within the framework of this chapter, Governments
are free to carry out additional measures which are consistent with those
legal instruments.

9.3.  It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in pursuit
of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with social and
economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding adverse
impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate priority needs
of developing countries for the achievement of sustained economic growth and
the eradication of poverty.

9.4.  In this context particular reference is also made to programme area A
of chapter 2 of Agenda 21 (Promoting sustainable development through trade).

9.5.  The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:

     (a)   Addressing the uncertainties:  improving the scientific basis for
decision-making;

     (b)   Promoting sustainable development:

     (i)   Energy development, efficiency and consumption;

    (ii)               Transportation;

   (iii)   Industrial development;

    (iv)   Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;

     (c)   Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;

     (d)   Transboundary atmospheric pollution.


                             PROGRAMME AREAS

                A.  Addressing the uncertainties:  improving the scientific
              basis for decision-making

Basis for action

9.6.  Concern about climate change and climate variability, air pollution and
ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific, economic and social
information to reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields.  Better
understanding and prediction of the various properties of the atmosphere and
of the affected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and their interactions
with socio-economic factors, are needed.

Objectives

9.7.  The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the
understanding of processes that influence and are influenced by the Earth's
atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including, inter alia,
physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, hydrological, economic
and social processes; to build capacity and enhance international cooperation;
and to improve understanding of the economic and social consequences of
atmospheric changes and of mitigation and response measures addressing such
changes.

Activities

9.8.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

     (a)   Promote research related to the natural processes affecting and
being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages between
sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including impacts on human
health, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;

     (b)   Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global Climate
Observing System and its components, including the Global Atmosphere Watch,
by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and operation of additional
systematic observation stations, and by contributing to the development,
utilization and accessibility of these databases;

     (c)   Promote cooperation in:

     (i)   The development of early detection systems concerning changes and
           fluctuations in the atmosphere;

    (ii)   The establishment and improvement of capabilities to predict such
           changes and fluctuations and to assess the resulting
           environmental and socio-economic impacts;

     (d)   Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify
threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels of
greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system and the environment as a whole, and the
associated rates of change that would not allow ecosystems to adapt naturally;

     (e)   Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific capacities,
the exchange of scientific data and information, and the facilitation of the
participation and training of experts and technical staff, particularly of
developing countries, in the fields of research, data assembly, collection and
assessment, and systematic observation related to the atmosphere.


cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

                  B.  Promoting sustainable development

           1.  Energy development, efficiency and consumption

Basis for action

9.9.  Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved
quality of life.  Much of the world's energy, however, is currently produced
and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to remain
constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially.  The need
to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and substances
will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy production,
transmission, distribution and consumption, and on growing reliance on
environmentally sound energy systems, particularly new and renewable sources
of energy. 1/  All energy sources will need to be used in ways that respect
the atmosphere, human health and the environment as a whole.

9.10.  The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound energy
supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable development,
particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.

Objectives

9.11.  The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to reduce
adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by promoting policies
or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the contribution of environmentally
sound and cost-effective energy systems, particularly new and renewable ones,
through less polluting and more efficient energy production, transmission,
distribution and use.  This objective should reflect the need for equity,
adequate energy supplies and increasing energy consumption in developing
countries, and should take into consideration the situations of countries that
are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and
export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive
products and/or the use of fossil fuels for which countries have serious
difficulties in switching to alternatives, and the situations of countries
highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climate change.

Activities

9.12.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

     (a)   Cooperate in identifying and developing economically viable,
environmentally sound energy sources to promote the availability of increased
energy supplies to support sustainable development efforts, in particular in
developing countries;

     (b)   Promote the development at the national level of appropriate
methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy
decisions for sustainable development, inter alia, through environmental
impact assessments;

     (c)   Promote the research, development, transfer and use of improved
energy-efficient technologies and practices, including endogenous technologies
in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the rehabilitation and
modernization of power systems, with particular attention to developing
countries;

     (d)   Promote the research, development, transfer and use of
technologies and practices for environmentally sound energy systems, including
new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention to developing
countries;
                 (e)   Promote the development of institutional, scientific, planning and
management capacities, particularly in developing countries, to develop,
produce and use increasingly efficient and less polluting forms of energy;

     (f)   Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the
contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole, particularly
new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an economically
efficient manner, taking into account respective countries' unique social,
physical, economic and political characteristics, and examining and
implementing, where appropriate, measures to overcome any barriers to their
development and use;

     (g)   Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where
applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of
environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;

     (h)   In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;

     (i)   Build capacity for energy planning and programme management in
energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and promotion
of new and renewable sources of energy;

     (j)   Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission standards or
recommendations at the national level, 2/ aimed at the development and use of
technologies that minimize adverse impacts on the environment;

     (k)   Encourage education and awareness-raising programmes at the local,
national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy efficiency and
environmentally sound energy systems;

     (l)   Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with the
private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide decision makers
and consumers with information on opportunities for energy efficiency.


                           2.  Transportation

Basis for action

9.13.  The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play in
economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly
increase.  However, since the transport sector is also a source of atmospheric
emissions, there is need for a review of existing transport systems and for
more effective design and management of traffic and transport systems.

Objectives

9.14.  The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce or
control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere and other
adverse environmental effects of the transport sector, taking into account
development priorities as well as the specific local and national
circumstances and safety aspects.

Activities

9.15.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

     (a)   Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost-effective, more
efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly integrated
rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally sound road networks,
taking into account the needs for sustainable social, economic and development
priorities, particularly in developing countries;

                 (b)   Facilitate at the international, regional, subregional and
national levels access to and the transfer of safe, efficient, including
resource-efficient, and less polluting transport technologies, particularly
to the developing countries, including the implementation of appropriate
training programmes;

     (c)   Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting, analysing
and exchanging relevant information on the relation between environment and
transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic observation of emissions
and the development of a transport database;

     (d)   In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage use of transportation modes that minimize
adverse impacts on the atmosphere;

     (e)   Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to integrate
transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement planning
strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts of transport;

     (f)   Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its regional
commissions, the feasibility of convening regional conferences on transport
and the environment.


cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

3.  Industrial development

Basis for action

9.16.  Industry is essential for the production of goods and services and is
a major source of employment and income, and industrial development as such
is essential for economic growth.  At the same time, industry is a major
resource and materials user and consequently industrial activities result in
emissions into the atmosphere and the environment as a whole.  Protection of
the atmosphere can be enhanced, inter alia, by increasing resource and
materials efficiency in industry, installing or improving pollution abatement
technologies and replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other
ozone-depleting substances with appropriate substitutes, as well as by
reducing wastes and by-products.

Objectives

9.17.  The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage industrial
development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere by,
inter alia, increasing efficiency in the production and consumption by
industry of all resources and materials, by improving pollution-abatement
technologies and by developing new environmentally sound technologies.


Activities

9.18.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

     (a)   In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and adverse
impacts on the atmosphere;

     (b)   Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity to
develop technologies, products and processes that are safe, less polluting and
make more efficient use of all resources and materials, including energy;

     (c)   Cooperate in the development and transfer of such industrial
technologies and in the development of capacities to manage and use such
technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;
                 (d)   Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments to
foster sustainable industrial development;

     (e)   Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking into
account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the economic and
environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently and producing fewer
wastes;

     (f)   Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient
technologies and processes in industries, taking into account area-specific
accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and renewable sources of
energy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution, and adverse impacts on
the atmosphere.


      4.  Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use

Basis for action

9.19.  Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected by
changes in the atmosphere.  Certain practices related to terrestrial and
marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and increase
atmospheric emissions.  The loss of biological diversity may reduce the
resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air pollution damage.
Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on forests, biodiversity, and
freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as on economic activities, such as
agriculture.  Policy objectives in different sectors may often diverge and
will need to be handled in an integrated manner.


Objectives

9.20.  The objectives of this programme area are:

     (a)   To promote terrestrial and marine resource utilization and
appropriate land-use practices that contribute to:

     (i)   The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or the limitation of
           anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;

    (ii)   The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement, where
           appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;

   (iii)   The conservation and sustainable use of natural and environmental
           resources;

     (b)   To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and their
socio-economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into account in planning
and implementing policies and programmes concerning terrestrial and marine
resources utilization and land-use practices.

Activities

9.21.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

     (a)   In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound land-use practices;

     (b)   Implement policies and programmes that will discourage
inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and promote sustainable
utilization of terrestrial and marine resources;

     (c)   Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial and
marine resources and land-use practices that will be more resilient to
atmospheric changes and fluctuations;
                 (d)   Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the conservation
and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases,
including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other terrestrial, coastal
and marine ecosystems.


              C.  Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion

Basis for action

9.22.  Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing concern
about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer by
reactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCs, halons and related
substances.  While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer (as amended in London in 1990) were important steps in international
action, the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of ozone-depleting
substances has continued to rise.  This can be changed through compliance with
the control measures identified within the Protocol.

Objectives

9.23.  The objectives of this programme area are:

     (a)   To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention and the
Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the consideration in
those instruments of the special needs and conditions of the developing
countries and the availability to them of alternatives to substances that
deplete the ozone layer.  Technologies and natural products that reduce demand
for these substances should be encouraged;

     (b)   To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a consequence of
depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone layer.

cont'd

[Soldier4Christ]

Activities

9.24.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

     (a)   Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its 1990
amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds
and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as
appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal Protocol and its
implementing mechanisms, including making available substitutes for CFCs and
other ozone-depleting substances and facilitating the transfer of the
corresponding technologies to developing countries in order to enable them to
comply with the obligations of the Protocol;

     (b)   Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing System by
facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding - the establishment
and operation of additional systematic observation stations, especially in the
tropical belt in the southern hemisphere;

     (c)   Participate actively in the continuous assessment of scientific
information and the health and environmental effects, as well as of the
technological/economic implications of stratospheric ozone depletion; and
consider further actions that prove warranted and feasible on the basis of
these assessments;

     (d)   Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider taking
appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health, agriculture and
marine environment;

     (e)   Replace CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, consistent with
the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's suitability should be
evaluated holistically and not simply based on its contribution to solving one
atmospheric or environmental problem.


                 D.  Transboundary atmospheric pollution

Basis for action

9.25.  Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans and
other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and forest loss and the
acidification of water bodies.  The geographical distribution of atmospheric
pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with the developing countries
severely underrepresented.  The lack of reliable emissions data outside Europe
and North America is a major constraint to measuring transboundary air
pollution.  There is also insufficient information on the environmental and
health effects of air pollution in other regions.

9.26.  The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, and its
protocols, have established a regional regime in Europe and North America,
based on a review process and cooperative programmes for systematic
observation of air pollution, assessment and information exchange.  These
programmes need to be continued and enhanced, and their experience needs to
be shared with other regions of the world.

Objectives

9.27.  The objectives of this programme area are:

     (a)   To develop and apply pollution control and measurement
technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollution and to develop
alternative environmentally sound technologies;

     (b)   To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent of
transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and anthropogenic
activities;

     (c)   To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of developing
countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of transboundary
air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of information and training of
experts;

     (d)   To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate transboundary air
pollution resulting from industrial and nuclear accidents, natural disasters
and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural resources;

     (e)   To encourage the establishment of new and the implementation of
existing regional agreements for limiting transboundary air pollution;

     (f)   To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions causing
transboundary air pollution and their effects.

Activities

9.28.  Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and financial institutions,
should:

     (a)   Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for transboundary
air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with developing countries,
in the areas of systematic observation and assessment, modelling and the
development and exchange of emission control technologies for mobile and
stationary sources of air pollution.  In this context, greater emphasis should
be put on addressing the extent, causes, health and socio-economic impacts of
ultraviolet radiation, acidification of the environment and photo-oxidant
damage to forests and other vegetation;

     (b)   Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response
mechanisms for transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial accidents
and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of
natural resources;

     (c)   Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data,
information and national and/or regional experiences;

     (d)   Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to assess
transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement programmes
identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions and to address
their environmental, economic, social and other effects.

Means of implementation

     International and regional cooperation

9.29.  Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures which
relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work should
primarily continue in those contexts.  Governments should continue to
cooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global levels,
including cooperation within the United Nations system.  In this context
reference is made to the recommendations in chapter 38 of Agenda 21
(International institutional arrangements).

     Capacity-building

9.30.  Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations bodies,
international donors and non-governmental organizations, should mobilize
technical and financial resources and facilitate technical cooperation with
developing countries to reinforce their technical, managerial, planning and
administrative capacities to promote sustainable development and the
protection of the atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.

Human resource development

9.31.  Education and awareness-raising programmes concerning the promotion of
sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere need to be
introduced and strengthened at the local, national and international levels
in all relevant sectors.

Financial and cost evaluation

9.32.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area A to be about
$640 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

9.33. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of the four-part programme under
programme area B to be about $20 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms.  These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.  Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

9.34.  The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area C to be in the
range of $160-590 million on grant or concessional terms.  These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed
by Governments.  Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

9.35.  The Conference secretariat has included costing for technical
assistance and pilot programmes under paragraphs 9.32 and 9.33.


                                              Notes

     1/    New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar
photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human power,
as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the Development and
Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy, prepared specifically for
the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and A/AC.218/1992/5).

     2/    This includes standards or recommendations promoted by regional
economic integration organizations.


END OF CHAPTER 9