Biblical Archaeology

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Israel Archaeology

Let's begin our look at Israel archaeology with the "Merneptah Stele" (also known as the Israel Stele), which is an upright stone slab measuring over seven feet tall that contains carved hieroglyphic text dating to approximately 1230 BC. This Egyptian monument describes the military victories of Pharaoh Merneptah and includes the earliest mention of "Israel" outside the Bible. Although the specific battles covered by the stele are not included in the Bible, the stele establishes outside evidence that the Israelites were already living as a people in ancient Canaan by 1230 BC. 1 In addition to the Stele, a large wall picture was discovered in the great Karnak Temple of Luxor (ancient Thebes), which shows battle scenes between the Egyptians and Israelites. These scenes have also been attributed to Pharaoh Merneptah and date to approximately 1209 BC. 2 The Karnak Temple also contains records of Pharaoh Shishak's military victories about 280 years later. Specifically, the "Shishak Relief" depicts Egypt's victory over King Rehoboam in about 925 BC, when Solomon's Temple in Judah was plundered. 3 This is the exact event mentioned in two books of the Old Testament. 4

Outside Egypt, we also discover a wealth of evidence for the early Israelites. The "Moabite Stone" (Mesha Stele) is a three-foot stone slab discovered near Dibon, east of the Dead Sea that describes the reign of Mesha, King of Moab, around 850 BC. 5 According to the Book of Genesis, the Moabites were neighbors of the Israelites. 6 This stele covers victories by King Omri and King Ahab of Israel against Moab, and Mesha's later victories on behalf of Moab against King Ahab's descendants. 7 The "Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser" is a seven-foot, four-sided pillar of basalt that describes the victories of King Shalmaneser III of Assyria, including defeats of Tyre, Sidon and "Jehu, Son of Omri." Dated to about 841 BC, the Obelisk (now in the British Museum) was discovered in the Northwest Palace at Nimrud and shows Israel's King Jehu kneeling before the Assyrian king in humble tribute. 8

OK, everything I found establishes that the ancient Israelites did in fact exist. However, there's a big difference between historic generalities and the specific people and events mentioned in the Bible. For instance, King David and his son, Solomon, are huge parts of Jewish history in the Old Testament. Shouldn't we find archaeology in Israel to support for their reigns and activities as well?

In one of the books I picked up, I was surprised to read that the historical David never existed. Another article I read referred to the well-established "David Myth" -- a literary invention drawn from heroic tradition to establish the Jewish monarchy...

Kathleen Kenyon, a very credible archaeologist I came to trust and enjoy, declared:

      To many people it seems remarkable that David and Solomon still remain unknown outside the Old Testament or literary sources derived directly from it. No extra-biblical inscription, either from Palestine or from a neighboring country, has yet been found to contain a reference to them. 9

Well, I guess we don't have to find archaeological evidence for every person and place mentioned in the Bible, but David was huge to me. I discovered he's mentioned 1,048 times in the Bible -- the subject of 62 chapters and the writer of probably 73 Psalms in the Old Testament. Boy, I really wanted to see some evidence for that guy...

Guess what? Since Kenyon made the above statement in roughly 1987, the validity of the ancient biblical record regarding King David received a huge lift!

In 1993, archaeologists discovered a stone inscription at the ancient city of Dan, which refers to the "House of David." The "House of David Inscription" (Tel Dan Inscription) is the first ancient reference to King David outside the Bible. 10 Specifically, the stone is a victory pillar of a King in Damascus dated a couple hundred years after David's reign, which mentions a "king of Israel of the House of David." Over the next year, more inscription pieces were discovered at the site, which allowed archaeologists to reconstruct the entirety of the declaration: "I killed Jehoram son of Ahab king of Israel and I killed Ahaziahu son of Jehoram king of the House of David." Remarkably, these are Jewish leaders linked to the lineage of David as recorded in the Bible. 11

The archaeology of Israel was proving powerful!


1 Price, The Stones Cry Out, 145-146. Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 228-229.
2 Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 230.
3 Ibid., 301-302.
4 1 Kings 14 and 2 Chronicles 12.
5 Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 308-310.
6 Genesis 19.
7 2 Kings 3.
8 Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 321-22. See also, 2 Kings 9-10. 9 Kathleen Kenyon, The Bible and Recent Archaeology, rev. ed., John Knox Press, 1987, 85.
10 Price, The Stones Cry Out, 166-67.
11 Ibid. 167-72.

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New Testament Archaeology


OK, that research helped me dramatically with the historical veracity of the Old Testament, but what about New Testament archaeology? The Old Testament was maintained as the historical archives for an entire nation by a well-organized system of recorders and scribes. However, wasn't the New Testament merely a collection of religious books and letters written by a few independent zealots trying to encourage followers after the death of their religious leader?

At this point, I was on fire for exploring this stuff. Nobody ever told me this material was available. I thought the Bible was a collection of moral mythology stories used to support "blind faith" in a couple of major world religions. I had no idea that the Bible was grounded in historical, geographical and archaeological evidence. As I turned to the evidence for the New Testament writings, I was reading and digesting up to four books per week...

Guess what? It was remarkable! Like the Old Testament, I found that the historical record of the New Testament was upheld again and again...

The foundations of the Jewish Temple Mount built by Herod the Great still stand in Jerusalem. The "Southern Steps" where Jesus and his followers entered the Temple are preserved in an active excavation site. The Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem is generally considered a credible site for the birth place of Jesus. The huge Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem is also considered a reliable historical site covering the locations of the crucifixion and burial of Christ. These sites were covered over (and thus, preserved) by the Romans in the second century AD.

On the Sea of Galilee, towns such as Nazareth are still active. Capernaum and Chorazin, two sites Jesus visited often, have been excavated and preserved. Sites of famous teachings such as Kursi (the swine miracle), Tabgha (loaves and fishes), Mount of Beatitudes (Sermon on the Mount) and Caesarea Philippi (Peter's confession) are all preserved as reliable historical sites.

I was spending hours at my desk with the latest New Testament archaeology books and periodicals, cross-referencing the latest finds with the New Testament passages... It was fascinating...

The synagogue at Capernaum where Jesus cured a man with an unclean spirit and delivered the sermon on the bread of life. The house of Peter at Capernaum where Jesus healed Peter's mother-in-law and others. Jacob's well where Jesus spoke to the Samaritan woman. The Pool of Bethesda in Jerusalem, where Jesus healed a crippled man. The Pool of Siloam in Jerusalem, where Jesus healed a blind man. The tribunal at Corinth where Paul was tried. The theater at Ephesus where the riot of silversmiths occurred. Herod's palace at Caesarea where Paul was kept under guard. 1 It went on and on...

Of course, none of this New Testament archaeology proved the underlying theology to me, but it was still powerful. The places existed and the historical events happened. I wasn't convinced of the miraculous extent of these events, but there was nothing denying their historicity...

I was ready to go one layer deeper and see who these history writers were. In my mind, I needed to further establish their credibility in order to start understanding where they were coming from with their record of such profound events...

cont'd on page two

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Page Two

Saint Luke

I decided to start with the writer known by many as Saint Luke, because that's where the archaeologists and historians seemed to start. Also, Luke wrote about one-quarter of the New Testament (the Gospel of Luke and the Book of Acts), so, for me, that was a big enough chunk of text to start testing the veracity of the entire New Testament.

Starting about 150 years ago, scholars in Europe started rejecting the historical records of Saint Luke. These academics declared that there was no evidence to support the existence of several locations and leaders mentioned in Luke's writings, and therefore, they rejected the entirety of his account. However, I discovered that archaeological finds during the last century have revealed that Luke was a very accurate historian and the two books he authored were absolutely authoritative records of history!

One of the greatest archaeologists of all time was Sir William Ramsay. He studied under the famous German historical schools in the mid-nineteenth century, which taught that the New Testament was a religious treatise written in the mid-200s AD, and not an historical document recorded in the first century. Ramsay was so convinced of this teaching that he entered the field of archaeology and went to Asia Minor to specifically find the physical evidence to refute Luke's biblical record. After years of field study, Ramsay completely reversed his entire view of the Bible and first century history. He wrote:

      Luke is a historian of the first rank; not merely are his statements of fact trustworthy, he is possessed of the true historic sense...in short, this author should be placed along with the greatest of historians.1

Luke's accuracy is demonstrated by the fact that he names key historical figures in the correct time sequence. He also uses the correct, and often obscure, government titles in various geographical areas, including the politarchs of Thessalonica, the temple wardens of Ephesus, the procouncil of Cyprus, and the "first man of the island" in Malta. In Luke's announcement of Jesus' public ministry, he mentions, "Lysanius tetrarch of Abilene". Scholars questioned Luke's credibility since the only Lysanius known for centuries was a leader of Chalcis who ruled from 40-36 BC. However, an inscription dated to the time of Tiberius (14-37 AD) was found, which records a temple dedication naming Lysanius as the "tetrarch of Abila" (Abilene near Damascus). This matched Luke's account and stunned the liberal scholarship of the day. 2

In the Book of Acts, Paul was brought before Gallio, the proconsul of Achaea. Again, archaeology confirms this account. At Delphi, an inscription from Emperor Claudius was discovered that says, "Lucius Junios Gallio, my friend, and the proconsul of Achaia . . ." Historians date the inscription to 52 AD, which supports the time of Paul's visit there in 51 AD. 3

Later in Acts, Erastus, a coworker of Paul, is appointed treasurer of Corinth. In 1928, archaeologists excavated a Corinthian theatre and discovered an inscription that reads, "Erastus in return for his aedilship laid the pavement at his own expense." The pavement was laid in 50 AD, and the term "aedile" refers to the designation of treasurer. 4

In another passage, Luke gives Plubius, the chief man on the island of Malta, the title, "first man of the island." Scholars questioned this strange title and deemed it unhistorical. Inscriptions have recently been discovered on the island that indeed give Plubius the title of "first man." 5

Elsewhere, Luke uses the Greek term "politarchs" ("rulers of the city") to refer to the leaders in Thessalonica. Although it sounds inconsequential, this was another hit against Luke's credibility for centuries, because no other Greek literature used this leadership term. However, approximately 20 inscriptions have now been discovered that bear the term "politarch," including five finds that specifically refer to the ancient leadership in Thessalonica. 6

As a final example, Saint Luke calls Iconium a city in Phyrigia. Who cares? Well, this was also a major rub against the credibility of Luke for centuries. Scholars, going all the way back to writings from historians like Cicero, maintained that Iconium was in Lycaonia, not Phyrigia. Therefore, scholars declared that the entire Book of Acts was unreliable. Guess what? In 1910, Ramsay was looking for the evidence to support this long-held claim against Luke and he uncovered a stone monument declaring that Iconium was indeed a city in Phyrigia. 7 Many archaeological discoveries since 1910 have confirmed this - Luke was right!

When reviewing the research and writings of Saint Luke, Famous historian A.N. Sherwin-White declares:

      In all, Luke names thirty-two countries, fifty-four cities, and nine islands without error. 8

      For Acts the confirmation of historicity is overwhelming. . . . Any attempt to reject its basic historicity must now appear absurd. 9

1 Sir William M. Ramsey, The Bearing of Recent Discovery on the Trustworthiness of the New Testament, Hodder & Stoughton, 1915.
2 Pat Zukeran, Archaeology and the New Testament, 2000, 4, http://www.probe.org/docs/arch-nt.html. Scripture citation: Luke 3:1.
3 Ibid. Scripture citation: Acts 18:12-17.
4 Ibid. Scripture citation: Acts 19:22.
5 Ibid. Scripture citation: Acts 28:7.
6 Eric Lyons, Luke and the Term Politarchas, Apologetic Press, 2002, http://www.apologeticspress.org/rr/rr2002/res0204b.htm. Scripture citation: Acts 17:6.
7 "The Book of Acts," New Testament Introductions. The Blue Letter Bible. 2002-04. http://www.blueletterbible.org/study/intros/acts.html. Scripture citation: Acts 14:6.
8 Norman Geisler, Baker Encyclopedia of Apologetics, Baker Books, 1999, 47.
9 A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Society and Roman Law in the New Testament, Clarendon Press, 1963, 189.

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Gospel of Luke

The opening to the Christmas story in the Gospel of Luke is familiar to many of us...

      And it came to pass in those days that a decree went out from Caesar Augustus that all the world should be registered. This census first took place while Quirinius was governing Syria. So all went to be registered, everyone to his own city. 1

In this passage from the Gospel of Luke, we learn of a decree from Caesar Augustus that all the world will be taxed and everyone must return to their home city for a formal census. We also read that this concept of registration and taxation was first decreed when Quirinius (also known as Cyrenius) was governing Syria. Well, for centuries, this whole text was considered a fabrication, since there was no secular record of such a Roman census or that people had to return to their home cities. Also, the only record of Quirinius (Cyrenius) being "governor" of Syria was 6-7 AD (Josephus), much too late to coincide with the biblical record.

Guess what? Recent discoveries reveal that the Romans did have a regular enrollment of taxpayers and held a formal census every 14 years, beginning with the reign of Caesar Augustus. 2 In addition, an inscription and other archaeological evidence reveal that Quirinius was indeed "governing" Syria around 7 BC (although not with the official title of "governor", he was the military leader in the territory). 3 Finally, a papyrus discovered in Egypt generally discusses the system of Roman taxation, declaring the following: "Because of the approaching census it is necessary that all those residing for any cause away from their home should at once prepare to return to their own governments in order that they may complete the family registration of the enrollment..."4

I had to admit, Luke passed my notion of a "credibility test." In fact, his style was far from the religious fanaticism that I expected. Like me, his whole point for writing his accounts was to collect the evidence and present the historical "case" for Jesus and his teachings. For me, it was powerful that Luke writes his entire text as a research paper -- "an orderly account" -- for a Roman official named Theophilus. Here's the beginning of Luke's record:

      Having carefully investigated all of these accounts from the beginning, I have decided to write a careful summary for you, to reassure you of the truth of all you were taught.5

So, as an authoritative writer of history, Luke passed my test with flying colors. I wasn't ready to accept the theology of his Gospel account, but I wasn't really "testing" that yet. I was still checking out the authenticity and credibility of these guys...

After the Gospel of Luke, what was next on my list...?


1 Luke 2:1-3, The Holy Bible, New King James Version.
2 E. M. Blaiklock, "Quirinius," The Zondervan Pictorial Encyclopedia of the Bible, vol. 5, Zondervan Publishing House, 1976, 6. See also, http://users.rcn.com/tlclcms/census.html#Anchor4.
3 Ronald Marchant, The Census of Quirinius: The Historicity of Luke 2:1-5, Interdisciplinary Biblical Research Institute, Research Report #4, 1980, 4-6, http://www.ibri.org/04census.htm.
4 See: http://users.rcn.com/tlclcms/census.html#Anchor4. Cited in Maier, Fullness, 4, who is quoting from A. H. M. Jones, ed., A History of Rome through the Fifth Century, Harper and Row, 1970, II, 256f.
5 Luke 1:3-4, New Living Translation, Tyndale House Publishers, 1996.

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Gospel of John

John also wrote a big chunk of the New Testament, including the Gospel of John, letters, and the Book of Revelation, so that's where I went next... Again, I wasn't focusing on the "theological stuff" yet -- I just wanted to test the "historical" elements first...

Well, I soon discovered that John's accuracy is also supported by recent discoveries.

In the Gospel of John, Jesus heals a man at the Pool of Bethesda. John describes the pool as having five porticoes. 1 Until recently, this site was a point of scholarly skepticism. Then, 40 feet underground, archaeologists discovered a pool with five porticoes, and a surrounding area that perfectly matches John's description. 2 Later in the text, John describes the Pool of Siloam, 3 another site of contention for hundreds of years. Well, archaeologists discovered this pool in 1897. 4

Further in John's Gospel, John describes Pontius Pilate speaking to Jesus from the judgment seat in a place called "the Pavement" ("Gabbatha" in Hebrew). 5 For hundreds of years, scholars used this "myth" to reject John's record of Jesus and the trial by Pilate, because there was no historical record of a court called Gabbatha or "The Pavement" in Jerusalem. However, famous archaeologist William Albright revealed that this place was in fact the court of the Tower of Antonia, which was destroyed by the Romans in 66-70 AD. It was left buried when Jerusalem was rebuilt in the time of Hadrian, but it was recently uncovered during excavations there. 6

OK, that's great stuff for "site support," but what about some of these "larger-than-life" characters such as Pontius Pilate, the procurator of Rome who presided over the trial of Jesus?

Well, in 1961, archaeologists discovered a plaque fragment in Caesarea, a Roman city along the Mediterranean coast of Israel. The plaque was written in Latin and imbedded in a section of steps leading to Caesarea's Amphitheatre. The inscription includes the following: "Pontius Pilatus, Prefect of Judea has dedicated to the people of Caesarea a temple in honor of Tiberius." Emperor Tiberius reigned from 14 to 37 AD, perfectly meshing with the New Testament account that records Pontius Pilate ruling as governor from 26 to 36 AD. 7

Tacitus, a well-known first century Roman historian, also mentioned Pontius Pilate:

      Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus... 8

Wait. Did I read this right? A Roman historian not only mentions a Roman governor, Pontius Pilate, but he also mentions Christus -- Christ -- and his suffering at the hands of Pilate! For me, this was huge! I was always taught that Jesus Christ and the events of the New Testament were solely contained in the Bible.

I was blown away...! Are there other ancient writings outside the Bible mentioning New Testament people and events -- even Jesus Himself?

I made a big star in my notes... I was definitely coming back to this one...!

OK, now what...?

All of this stuff happened -- historically, I mean... I still didn't accept the theological implications of these events, but they obviously happened nonetheless... They weren't myths... They weren't hoaxes... They were historical events.

So, how could I start testing the depths of these events? What drove the writers of the Bible to such passion? What compelled these men to write and defend such profound messages in connection with these historical events?

Come on! Were there really divine underpinnings to all of these books? Intellectually, I now knew something "metaphysical" was out there... More than "metaphysical" -- something with intelligence. But, could I really accept that these books were from outside our dimensions of time and space...?

I was ready to accept the Bible as a very special book. I was even ready to declare its historical trustworthiness. But the notion of "divine inspiration" still seemed a little over the edge to me. I just couldn't get my skeptical mind around that one…

If God truly delivered this book from outside our four dimensions, wouldn't he just tell us? I understand that the writers of the Bible say it's divinely inspired, but that's not enough for me. It just seems that if God truly delivered this book to mankind through a group of 40 or so authors that he would give us something to hang our hats on… Yes, I'm stunned by the Bible's historical veracity, archaeological support, internal integrity, etc. - the evidence is fantastic, and definitely sets the Bible apart -- but how could I ever be asked to jump the chasm from "really special book" to "divinely inspired letter from God"?

1 John 5:1-15.
2 http://www.digbible.org/tour/bethesda.html.
3 John 9:7.
4 http://www.bible-history.com/jerusalem/firstcenturyjerusalem_pool_of_siloam.html.
5 John 19:13.
6 William Albright, The Archaeology of Palestine, Penguin Books, 1960.
7 Price, The Stones Cry Out, 307-308.
8 Tacitus, Annales, Historiae, Chapter 15, paragraphs 54.

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Ancient Mesopotamia

So, what has archaeology revealed about ancient Mesopotamia?

Since I was always trying to reconcile ancient maps with today's maps, I decided to start by looking at the archaeological evidence for the most ancient cities and civilizations mentioned in the Bible. How about the early cities of Abraham and the Patriarchs? Did they really exist? Abraham's ancestral home of "Ur" is presented as a powerful city-state in southern Mesopotamia - it's mentioned four times in the Old Testament. Well, it turns out "Ur" is located in modern Iraq. Depending on strife in the region, it has been excavated on and off during the last century, exposing a wealth of information about the pagan culture of Abraham's time. In the Book of Genesis, Abraham's father, Terah, moved his family north to "Haran".1 This ancient city has been discovered and excavated in modern-day Turkey. Also found in that same area of Turkey are villages that still have the names of Abraham's grandfather and great grandfather, Nahor and Serug. 2

To date, numerous sites and artifacts have been uncovered that reveal a great deal about the culture of ancient Mesopotamia. One of the most dramatic finds is the "Sumerian King List," which dates to approximately 2100 BC. This collection of clay tablets and prisms is most exciting because it divides the Sumerian kings into two categories; those who reigned before the "great flood" and those who reigned after it. 3 Actually, records of a global flood are found throughout most ancient cultures. For instance, the "Epic of Gilgamesh" from the ancient Babylonians contains an extensive flood story. Discovered on clay tablets in locations such as Ninevah and Megiddo, the Epic even includes a man who built a great ship, filled it with animals, and used birds to see if the water had receded. 4

Archaeology in the last century has also shed light on the great military civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia and their ultimate impact on law and culture throughout the region. One significant find is the "Law Code of Hammurabi," which is a seven foot tall, black diorite carving containing about 300 laws of Babylon's King Hammurabi. Dated to about 1750 BC, the Law Code contains many civil laws that are similar to those found in the first five books of the Bible. Another dig at the ancient city of "Nuzi" near the Tigris River uncovered approximately 20,000 clay tablets. Dated between 1500 and 1400 BC, these cuneiform texts explain the culture, customs and laws of the time, many of which are similar to those found in the early books of the Bible. 5

As far as major ancient empires, the Hittite civilization is mentioned throughout the Old Testament as ruling the area of present-day Turkey, Syria and Lebanon, yet nothing was known of these people outside of the Bible. About 100 years ago, ancient "Boghazkoy" was discovered east of Ankara, Turkey, which revealed itself as the expansive capital city of the "Hittite Empire". Since then, archaeologists have uncovered a wealth of information about the history, language and culture of a people considered "imaginary" by many scholars until the 1900's. 6

The Bible tells us a great deal about Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian Empire, which destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC and exiled the Jews to Babylon for 70 years. Well, ancient Babylon has now been uncovered, comprising nearly 3,000 acres about 55 miles south of current-day Baghdad in Iraq. The ruins include the famous ziggurat structures, the Palace of King Nebuchadnezzar, and the enormous walls that measured 80 feet thick (wide enough to allow a four-horse chariot to make a full turn on the top of the wall).7

The Philistines were known as one of the "Sea Peoples" that constantly warred against the Israelites for control of early Canaan. Mentioned over 200 times in the Old Testament, the Philistines had a major fortified seaport at Ashkelon on the Mediterranean Sea, which was discovered just north of present-day Gaza. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Ashkelon in 604 BC, as predicted by Jeremiah and other Old Testament prophets. 8

I was really impressed with my study of ancient Mesopotamia! Call me totally naïve, but I had no idea that all these places mentioned in the Bible truly existed! I dug in more...


1 Genesis 11:31. See Alfred Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, Baker Books, 1998, 59-72.
2 Genesis 11:22.
3 Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 188.
4 Ibid., 192-96. See also, Genesis, chapters 7 & 8.
5 Randall Price, The Stones Cry Out: What Archaeology Reveals About the Truth of the Bible, Harvest House Publishers, 1997, 92-94. See also, Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 119, 102.
6 Pat Zukeran, Archaeology and the Old Testament, Probe Ministries, www.probe.org/docs/arch-ot.html, 2003, 2-3. See also, Price, The Stones Cry Out, 82-83.
7 Hoerth, Archaeology and the Old Testament, 372-378.
8 Ibid., 233-234.

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Why was the Hammurabi Code of Law such an important archaeological discovery?

The Law Code of Hammurabi is significant because it is one of the oldest set of laws yet discovered by modern archaeologists. It dates back to around the 18th century B.C. Hammurabi was the Babylonian king who conquered the Sumerian dynasty of Isin, thus bringing an end to the centuries-long Sumerian domination of Mesopotamia. His own dynasty collapsed following his death, but the code of laws which he instituted endured.

The Code of Hammurabi is of special interest to biblical archaeologists because of the similarities between it and the Mosaic Law. Instances of correspondence include the famous "eye for an eye" principle. This has led some scholars to speculate that Moses, who lived around three centuries after Hammurabi, borrowed his law from the Babylonian monarch. This view has been discredited however. The similarities are limited and often superficial. For example, in the Mosaic Law, the "eye for an eye" principle is universal. In the Hammurabi Law the "eye for an eye" principle only applies if both parties are of equal status (i.e. lower class, middle class, upper class, clerical, nobility, etc.).

The Law Code of Hammurabi shown below is preserved on a seven-foot-tall, black diorite stele, which depicts the king himself receiving the law from Shamash, the Babylonian god of justice. The Law Code of Hammurabi provides incredible insight into the civil laws and customs of the ancient world, and shows similarities to the laws contained in the Torah (first five books) of the Bible.

The Law Code of Hammurabi currently resides in the Louvre Museum, Paris.

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House of Yahweh Ostracon

The House of Yahweh Ostracon (a writing on pottery also known as the “House of God Ostracon”) was discovered in Arad, an ancient Judean city. Written in ancient Hebrew and dated to the early 6th century BC, it is considered to be one of the earliest references to the Temple in Jerusalem outside of the biblical accounts.

The House of Yahweh Ostracon reads, in part, as follows: "To my lord Elyashib, may the Lord seek your welfare…and as to the matter which you command me-it is well; he is in the House of Yahweh [God]."

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Why was the Merneptah Stele a significant archaeological discovery?

Merneptah was a Pharaoh who ruled over Egypt in the late 13th century B.C. The son of Ramesses the Great (Ramesses II), Merneptah was the fourth Pharaoh of the 19th Dynasty.

The “Merneptah Stele” is the name given to a stone slab engraved with a description of Merneptah’s military victories in Africa and the Near East. It was discovered by renowned British archaeologist Flinders Petrie at Thebes in 1896.

The Merneptah Stele is significant to biblical archaeologists because it is the earliest extra-biblical reference to the nation of Israel yet to be discovered. The mention of Israel is very short; it simply says, “Israel is laid waste, its seed is not.” Nevertheless, despite its brevity, the reference is very telling. It indicates that at the time the inscription was engraved, the nation of Israel was significant enough to be included by name among the other major city-states which were defeated by Merneptah in the late 13th century B.C. This implies that Israel was a major player in the region during the late 13th century, serving to corroborate to a degree the biblical narrative.

Because it remains the earliest known extra-biblical reference to the nation of Israel, the Merneptah Stele is also commonly known as the Israel Stele, or the Israel Stela (stela being another way to say and write stele). It is currently housed in the Cairo Museum in Cairo, Egypt.

The Merneptah Stele, which dates to about 1230 BC, was discovered in Thebes, Egypt in the late 1800’s. The Inscription contains a hymn and a list of the Pharaoh's military victories. The Nation of Israel is on the list of conquests, which scholars believe is the earliest reference to Israel outside the Bible.

The Merneptah Stele currently resides in the Cairo Museum, Egypt.

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Moabite Stone

Mesha was the king of the Moabites who was forced to pay tribute to his neighbor, the Nation of Israel. The Bible tells us that this tribute suddenly stopped: "Mesha, king of Moab, rebelled against the king of Israel..." (2 Kings 3:5).

Mesha’s account of his rebellion against Israel is found on a large stone monument known as the Moabite Stone (Mesha Stele). The stone inscription was discovered by a German missionary in 1868 at Dibon (ancient Moab; present-day Jordan).

The Moabite Stone is a dark-colored, basalt monument about four feet high by two feet wide, dating to the reign of King Mesha in about 850 B.C. This artifact is another important source that corroborates the biblical account of the early Israelites. It currently resides in the Louvre Museum, Paris.

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Shishak Relief

Pharaoh Shishak (945-924 B.C.) invaded Israel and Judah in 925 B.C. and carried off the treasures of Jerusalem's temple. The Bible records the attack from Judah's perspective in 2 Chronicles 12, but the Shishak Relief in the Karnak Temple gives much greater detail. Most scholars agree that the following biblical cities are mentioned: Arad, Beth-Horon, Beth-Shean, Gibeon, Mahanaim, Megiddo, Rehob, and Taanach.

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The House of David Inscription

The House of David Inscription (also known as the “Tel Dan Inscription”) was discovered in 1994 during excavations at the ancient city of Dan. It is considered by many to be the first reference to the "House of David" discovered outside the biblical text.

The House of David Inscription appears to be a fragment of a victory monument erected by a king of Damascus (Aram) during the 9th century BC, some 250 years after King David’s reign. The fragment specifically mentions victories over a “king of Israel” (probably Joram) and a king of the “House of David” (probably Ahaziah).
The House of David Inscription (Tel Dan Inscription) currently resides in the Israel Museum, Jerusalem.

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Bible Archaeology: Cities of Abraham's Time
Bible Archaeology often begins with the early cities of Abraham and the Patriarchs. Abraham's ancestral home of Ur, a powerful city-state of southern Mesopotamia, is mentioned four times in the Old Testament. Located in modern Iraq, Ur has been excavated on and off since the 1800s and has revealed a wealth of information about the pagan culture of Abraham's time. In Genesis 11:31, Abraham's father, Terah, moved his family north to Haran, an ancient city that exists in modern-day Turkey. Also found in that same area of Turkey are villages that still have the names of Abraham's grandfather and great grandfather, Nahor and Serug (Genesis 11:22).

Bible Archaeology: Cities of Ancient Empires
Bible Archaeology includes the capital cities of the major ancient empires. For instance, the Hittite civilization is mentioned throughout the Old Testament as ruling the area of present-day Turkey, Syria and Lebanon, yet nothing was known of these people outside of the Bible. About 100 years ago, ancient Boghazkoy was discovered east of Ankara, Turkey, which revealed itself as the expansive capital city of the Hittite Empire. Since then, archaeologists have uncovered a wealth of information about the history, language and culture of a people considered "imaginary" to many scholars prior to that time. Babylon, the ancient capital of the Babylonian Empire, covers nearly 3,000 acres about 55 miles south of current-day Baghdad in Iraq. The ruins include the famous ziggurat structures (ex., the Tower of Babel), the Palace of King Nebuchadnezzar, and the enormous walls that measured 80 feet thick (wide enough to allow a four-horse chariot to turn). The Bible tells us that Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC and exiled the Jews to Babylon for 70 years. The Philistines were known as one of the "Sea Peoples" that constantly warred against the Israelites for control of early Canaan. Mentioned over 200 times in the Old Testament, the Philistines had a major fortified seaport at Ashkelon on the Mediterranean Sea, which was discovered just north of present-day Gaza. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed Ashkelon in 604 BC, as predicted by Jeremiah and other prophets.

Bible Archaeology: Cities of Ancient Israel
Bible archaeology finds its ultimate significance in the cities of ancient Israel. Mentioned more than 50 times in the Bible, Jericho was the initial entry point into the Promised Land for the Israelite people (Joshua 6). Archaeology has now confirmed the location of this fortified city of walls and towers that guarded entry to the land of Canaan from the east. Shechem was an important city throughout the Old Testament. In fact, Jeroboam made it the capital of the northern kingdom of Israel in the 10th century BC (1 Kings 12:25). Excavations have uncovered huge walls and a fortified gate system containing such important finds as the temple of Baal from the story of Abimelech (Judges 9:46). Excavations in the north have also revealed the city of Dan, which was a Canaanite stronghold conquered by Israel (specifically, the tribe of Dan) around 1150 BC (Judges 18). The rebuilt city, which became the northern boundary of Israel, has delivered a wealth of artifacts with biblical importance. The southern boundary of Israel was Beersheba, which became a fortified city during the period of King Solomon (1 Kings 4:25). Excavations between 1969 and 1976 have revealed massive walls, gates, wells and storehouses consistent with biblical accounts. The ancient city of Jerusalem, dating to the time of King David's initial conquest, was discovered and excavated between 1978 and 1985. Prior to this time, nothing apart from the Bible was known about King David's Jerusalem, which has now revealed a palace, towers and the famous Siloam spring (2 Samuel and 1 Chronicles). The ancient ruins of Gibeah were discovered about three miles north of Jerusalem. Gibeah was the home to Saul and the tribe of Benjamin, and later became King Saul's capital city (Judges 19 and 1 Samuel 10-15). Excavations have revealed Saul's fortress palace dated to about 1100 BC. Megiddo was a Canaanite city conquered by Israel in the north. It was a walled fortress that sat on a hill near an expansive plain that witnessed many battles of historical significance. In the 900s BC, King Solomon fortified the city (1 Kings 4:12), and later in the 600s BC, King Josiah lost a battle to the Egyptians there. According to Revelation 16:16, Megiddo (also known as Armageddon) is the location for the final world battle, where Jesus Christ will defeat the forces of Satan and establish His glorious kingdom for all time.

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Biblical Archaeology: Ancient Civilization
Biblical archaeology really begins with the Sumerian civilization of about 2500 BC. To date, numerous sites and artifacts have been uncovered that reveal a great deal about the ancient Mesopotamian culture. One of the most dramatic finds is the Sumerian King List, which dates to approximately 2100 BC. This collection of clay tablets and prisms is most exciting because it divides the Sumerian kings into two categories; those who reigned before the "great flood" and those who reigned after it. The lists are also dramatic because they include the ages of the kings before and after the "great flood," which show the same phenomenal life span changes mentioned in the Bible. Actually, records of a global flood are found throughout most ancient cultures. For instance, the Epic of Gilgamesh from the ancient Babylonians contains an extensive flood story. Discovered on clay tablets in locations such as Ninevah and Megiddo, the Epic even includes a hero who built a great ship, filled it with animals, and used birds to see if the water had receded (see Genesis 7-8).

Biblical Archaeology: Ancient Law & Culture
Biblical archaeology continues with the great military civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia and their ultimate impact on law and culture throughout the region. One significant find is the Law Code of Hammurabi, which is a seven foot tall, black diorite carving containing about 300 laws of Babylon's King Hammurabi (Hammurapi). Dated to about 1750 BC, the Law Code contains many civil laws that are similar to those found in the first five books of the Bible. Another find at the ancient city of Nuzi near the Tigris River uncovered approximately 20,000 clay tablets. Dated between 1500 and 1400 BC, these cuneiform texts explain the culture and customs of the time, many of which are similar to those found in the early books of the Bible.

Biblical Archaeology: Ancient Israel
Biblical archaeology then turns to the evidence for the early Israelites. The Merneptah Stele (also known as the Israel Stele) is an upright stone slab measuring over seven feet tall that contains carved hieroglyphic text dating to approximately 1230 BC. The Egyptian stele describes the military victories of Pharaoh Merneptah and includes the earliest mention of "Israel" outside the Bible. Although the specific battles covered by the stele are not included in the Bible, the stele establishes extra-biblical evidence that the Israelites were already living as a people in ancient Canaan by 1230 BC. In addition to the Stele, a large wall picture was discovered in the great Karnak Temple of Luxor (ancient Thebes), which shows battle scenes between the Egyptians and Israelites. These scenes have also been attributed to Pharaoh Merneptah and date to approximately 1209 BC. The Karnak Temple also contains records of Pharaoh Shishak's military victories about 280 years later. Specifically, the Shishak Relief depicts Egypt's victory over King Rehoboam in about 925 BC, when Solomon's Temple in Judah was plundered. This is the exact event mentioned in 1 Kings 14 and 2 Chronicles 12.

Outside Egypt, we also discover a wealth of evidence for the early Israelites. The Moabite Stone (Mesha Stele) is a three-foot stone slab discovered near Dibon ,East of the Dead Sea, that describes the reign of Mesha, King of Moab, around 850 BC. According to Genesis 19, the Moabites were neighbors of the Israelites. The stele covers victories by King Omri and Ahab of Israel against Moab, and Mesha's later victories on behalf of Moab against King Ahab's descendants (2 Kings 3). The Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser is a seven-foot, four-sided pillar of basalt that describes the victories of King Shalmaneser III of Assyria. Dated to about 841 BC, the Obelisk was discovered in the ancient palace of Nimrud and shows Israel's King Jehu kneeling before the Assyrian king in humble tribute (see 2 Kings 9-10).

Biblical Archaeology: The House of David and Solomon's Temple
Biblical archaeology covering ancient Israeli kings and culture received a huge lift in 1994 when archaeologists discovered a stone inscription at the ancient city of Dan, which refers to the "House of David." The House of David Inscription (Tel Dan Inscription) is important because it's the first ancient reference to King David outside the Bible. Specifically, the stone is a victory pillar of a King in Damascus dated about 250 years after David's reign, which mentions a "king of Israel" (probably Joram, son of Ahab) and a king of the "House of David" (probably Ahaziah of Judah). Another important find is the House of Yahweh Ostracon, which is a pottery shard dated to about 800 BC that contains a written receipt for a donation of silver shekels to Solomon's Temple. Written approximately 130 years after the completion of the Temple, this appears to be the earliest mention of Solomon's Temple outside the Bible.

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Bible Manuscripts

Dramatically, when the Bible manuscripts are compared to other ancient writings, they stand alone as the best-preserved literary works of all antiquity. Remarkably, there are thousands of existing Old Testament manuscripts and fragments copied throughout the Middle East, Mediterranean and European regions that agree phenomenally with each other. 1 In addition, these texts substantially agree with the Septuagint version of the Old Testament, which was translated from Hebrew to Greek some time during the 3rd century BC. 2 The Dead Sea Scrolls, discovered in Israel in the 1940's and 50's, also provide astounding evidence for the reliability of the ancient transmission of the Jewish Scriptures (Old Testament) in the 1st, 2nd and 3rd centuries BC. 3

The manuscript evidence for the "New Testament" is also dramatic, with nearly 25,000 ancient manuscripts discovered and archived so far, at least 5,600 of which are copies and fragments in the original Greek. 4 Some manuscript texts date to the early second and third centuries, with the time between the original autographs and our earliest existing fragment being a remarkably short 40-60 years. 5

Interestingly, this manuscript evidence far surpasses the manuscript reliability of other ancient writings that we trust as authentic every day. Look at these comparisons: Julius Caesar's The Gallic Wars (10 manuscripts remain, with the earliest one dating to 1,000 years after the original autograph); Pliny the Younger's Natural History (7 manuscripts; 750 years elapsed); Thucydides' History (8 manuscripts; 1,300 years elapsed); Herodotus' History (8 manuscripts; 1,350 years elapsed); Plato (7 manuscripts; 1,300 years); and Tacitus' Annals (20 manuscripts; 1,000 years). 6

Renowned Bible scholar F.F. Bruce declares:

      There is no body of ancient literature in the world which enjoys such a wealth of good textual attestation as the New Testament. 7

Homer's Iliad, the most renowned book of ancient Greece, is the second best-preserved literary work of all antiquity, with 643 copies of manuscript support discovered to date. In those copies, there are 764 disputed lines of text, as compared to 40 lines in all the New Testament manuscripts. 8 In fact, many people are unaware that there are no surviving manuscripts of any of William Shakespeare's 37 plays (written in the 1600's), and scholars have been forced to fill some gaps in his works. 9 This pales in textual comparison with the over 5,600 copies and fragments of the New Testament in the original Greek that, together, assure us that nothing's been lost. In fact, all of the New Testament except eleven minor verses can be reconstructed outside the Bible from the writings of the early church leaders in the second and third centuries AD. 10

      In real terms, the New Testament is easily the best attested ancient writing in terms of the sheer number of documents, the time span between the events and the document, and the variety of documents available to sustain or contradict it. There is nothing in ancient manuscript evidence to match such textual availability and integrity. 11

The academic discipline of "textual criticism" assures us that the Bible translations we have today are essentially the same as the ancient Bible manuscripts, with the exception of a few inconsequential discrepancies that have been introduced over time through copyist error. We must remember that the Bible was hand-copied for hundreds of years before the invention of the first printing press. Nevertheless, the text is exceedingly well preserved. Again, I pondered this -- of the approximately 20,000 lines that make up the entire New Testament, only 40 lines are in question. These 40 lines represent one quarter of one percent of the entire text and do not in any way affect the teaching and doctrine of the New Testament. I again compared this with Homer's Iliad. Of the approximately 15,600 lines that make up Homer's classic, 764 lines are in question. These 764 lines represent over 5% of the entire text, and yet nobody seems to question the general integrity of that ancient work.

To my real surprise, I discovered the Bible to be better preserved -- by far -- than other ancient works I've read and accepted over the years, such as Homer, Plato and Aristotle. As far as my "interpretation of an interpolation of an oral tradition" theory, I found that the Bible was not changed or interpreted from the ancient source texts. Simply, as the Bible was carried from country to country, it was translated into languages that don't necessarily mirror the original languages of Greek, Hebrew and Aramaic. However, other than some grammatical and cultural differences, the "Bible manuscripts" are absolutely true to their original form and content, and remarkably well-preserved in their various translations.