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'AGENDA 21' it took Bill Clinton

Joyce Morrison
August 6, 2006

The United Nations Agenda 21 was signed by the United States in 1992 and 14 years later, people are still in the dark. If you were to ask at random the question, "Have you heard of Agenda 21?" the answer would be an over-whelming "No," although it is being implemented in every local community.

Agenda 21 is a 40 chapter document listing goals to be achieved globally. It is the global plan to change the way we "live, eat, learn and communicate" because we must "save the earth."

"Its regulation would severely limit water, electricity, and transportation - even deny human access to our most treasured wilderness areas, it would monitor all lands and people. No one would be free from the watchful eye of the new global tracking and information system," according to Berit Kjos, author of Brave New Schools.

Maurice Strong, Secretary-general of the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro said, "...[C]urrent lifestyles and consumption patterns of the affluent middle class - involving high meat consumption and large amounts of frozen and convenience foods, use of fossil fuels, appliances, home and workplace air-conditioning, and suburban housing are not sustainable. A shift is necessary which will require a vast strengthening of the multilateral system, including the United Nations.

In other words, the Global plan is for us to live on the level of third world nations. That means no box mixes or microwave meals, limited use of fuel of any kind, no air-conditioning and very little meat. When the cost of freon skyrocketed, when mad cow disease hit, the National Animal Identification System introduced, the price of fuel soared, it has become apparent that given time, these sustainable controls will be put into place - one way or another - and the Global Governance is powerful.

In 1992, Agenda 21 began to change our lives. In that same year, Al Gore wrote his book, Earth in the Balance. To advance his cause, he has now written another piece of fiction entitled, An Inconvenient Truth about global warming…..he even starred in the movie. He also thinks he invented the internet.

Although groundwork had been laid, it took a Bill Clinton to actually introduce something so invasive to our nation and get by with it without the public becoming aware. President Clinton appointed his "President’s Council on Sustainable Development" and he literally gave away the rights and freedoms the framers of the Constitution had provided.

People in the United States may not know about Agenda 21 and the President’s Council on Sustainable Development, but people around the world do. They know that Chicago has one of the greatest numbers of activities existing at the local, neighborhood and/or microregional level. They also know that the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) monitors and promotes activities in this field through their Office for Sustainable Ecosystem and Communities.

Found on a Slovakian website: "To the leading countries in the field of development but especially of practical using of sustainable development indicators belong to the U.S.A. At the top level these activities are promoted by the President’s Council on Sustainable Development (1996), which defined a set of ten national goals toward sustainable development. These goals express in concrete terms the elements of sustainability. Alongside the goals are suggested indicators that can be used to help measure progress toward achieving them.”

Agenda 21 is certainly not a secret. The internet is full of how Agenda 21 has been fulfilled through Smart Growth planning, land use, sustainable development and extreme environmentalism. The so-called agenda is grant driven to your city council or county board in terms of sustainable, visioning, partners, tourism and stakeholders, along with consensus and other terms with the intent to make you believe we are running out of all our resources and we must do our part and "save for tomorrow.

It has nothing to do about “saving anything” – it has everything to do with “control.” Sadly, very few congressmen even know Agenda 21 is actually running our country when they are voting to send grant money back home. Agenda 21 is incentive driven as the planners know that greed in the heart of man will be his downfall.

The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, better known as ANWR, has oil we need to be drilling for the security of our nation. Environmentalists don’t seem to understand we are dependent on foreign oil from nations who do not like us and our nation’s defense is at stake. The area where drilling would occur is just a dot in this vast land, yet they would gamble the strength of our nation in behalf of their favorite word --"pristine."

At the same time, technology is advancing and we may not need the oil later. But we do need it now.

Henry Lamb of Eco-logic, Restructuring the U.N.,

The world changed on 9-11. No longer can the world tilt at the windmills of a fantasized "global village." No longer can visions of "sustainable development" be justified in a world where "sustainable freedom" is the only possible solution to the economic and power vacuum that foments acts of terrorism.

There is a better way.

Nations can and, ultimately, must learn to live as neighbors, free from the web of "international laws" that dictate which activities are "sustainable" and which are xenophobic and unacceptable. Nation-to-nation relationships, just like neighbor-to-neighbor relationships, should be fashioned voluntarily, driven by mutual benefit. For the first time in a century, the United States may be exploring this possibility.

Henry Lamb is right. We can live as neighbors with other nations but we do not need to live under a "web of international law." There are dedicated citizens in the United States who are wise enough to set our nation’s guidelines without following Agenda 21 and Sustainable Development as set forth by the United Nations.
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And demo(fat)cats wonder why, most Christians don't trust them.

REPORT OF THE UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT

(Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992)

Chapter 1

PREAMBLE*

1.1. Humanity stands at a defining moment in history. We are confronted with
a perpetuation of disparities between and within nations, a worsening of
poverty, hunger, ill health and illiteracy, and the continuing deterioration
of the ecosystems on which we depend for our well-being. However, integration
of environment and development concerns and greater attention to them will
lead to the fulfilment of basic needs, improved living standards for all,
better protected and managed ecosystems and a safer, more prosperous future.
No nation can achieve this on its own; but together we can - in a global
partnership for sustainable development.

1.2. This global partnership must build on the premises of General Assembly
resolution 44/228 of 22 December 1989, which was adopted when the nations of
the world called for the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, and on the acceptance of the need to take a balanced and
integrated approach to environnment and development questions.

1.3. Agenda 21 addresses the pressing problems of today and also aims at
preparing the world for the challenges of the next century. It reflects a
global consensus and political commitment at the highest level on development
and environment cooperation. Its successful implementation is first and
foremost the responsibility of Governments. National strategies, plans,
policies and processes are crucial in achieving this. International
cooperation should support and supplement such national efforts. In this
context, the United Nations system has a key role to play. Other
international, regional and subregional organizations are also called upon to
contribute to this effort. The broadest public participation and the active
involvement of the non-governmental organizations and other groups should also
be encouraged.

1.4. The developmental and environmental objectives of Agenda 21 will require
a substantial flow of new and additional financial resources to developing
countries, in order to cover the incremental costs for the actions they have
to undertake to deal with global environmental problems and to accelerate
sustainable development. Financial resources are also required for
strengthening the capacity of international institutions for the
implementation of Agenda 21. An indicative order-of-magnitude assessment of
costs is included in each of the programme areas. This assessment will need
to be examined and refined by the relevant implementing agencies and
organizations.

1.5. In the implementation of the relevant programme areas identified in
Agenda 21, special attention should be given to the particular circumstances
facing the economies in transition. It must also be recognized that these
countries are facing unprecedented challenges in transforming their economies,
in some cases in the midst of considerable social and political tension.

1.6. The programme areas that constitute Agenda 21 are described in terms of
the basis for action, objectives, activities and means of implementation.
Agenda 21 is a dynamic programme. It will be carried out by the various
actors according to the different situations, capacities and priorities of
countries and regions in full respect of all the principles contained in the
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. It could evolve over time in
the light of changing needs and circumstances. This process marks the
beginning of a new global partnership for sustainable development.

* * * * *

* When the term "Governments" is used, it will be deemed to
include the European Economic Community within its areas of competence.
Throughout Agenda 21 the term "environmentally sound" means "environmentally
safe and sound", in particular when applied to the terms "energy sources",
"energy supplies", "energy systems" and "technology" or "technologies".

SECTION I. SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS

INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION TO ACCELERATE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND RELATED DOMESTIC POLICIES

INTRODUCTION

2.1. In order to meet the challenges of environment and development, States
have decided to establish a new global partnership. This partnership commits
all States to engage in a continuous and constructive dialogue, inspired by
the need to achieve a more efficient and equitable world economy, keeping in
view the increasing interdependence of the community of nations and that
sustainable development should become a priority item on the agenda of the
international community. It is recognized that, for the success of this new
partnership, it is important to overcome confrontation and to foster a climate
of genuine cooperation and solidarity. It is equally important to strengthen
national and international policies and multinational cooperation to adapt to
the new realities.

2.2. Economic policies of individual countries and international economic
relations both have great relevance to sustainable development. The
reactivation and acceleration of development requires both a dynamic and a
supportive international economic environment and determined policies at the
national level. It will be frustrated in the absence of either of these
requirements. A supportive external economic environment is crucial. The
development process will not gather momentum if the global economy lacks
dynamism and stability and is beset with uncertainties. Neither will it
gather momentum if the developing countries are weighted down by external
indebtedness, if development finance is inadequate, if barriers restrict
access to markets and if commodity prices and the terms of trade of developing
countries remain depressed. The record of the 1980s was essentially negative
on each of these counts and needs to be reversed. The policies and measures
needed to create an international environment that is strongly supportive of
national development efforts are thus vital. International cooperation in
this area should be designed to complement and support - not to diminish or
subsume - sound domestic economic policies, in both developed and developing
countries, if global progress towards sustainable development is to be
achieved.

2.3. The international economy should provide a supportive international
climate for achieving environment and development goals by:

(a) Promoting sustainable development through trade liberalization;

(b) Making trade and environment mutually supportive;

(c) Providing adequate financial resources to developing countries and
dealing with international debt;

(d) Encouraging macroeconomic policies conducive to environment and
development.

2.4. Governments recognize that there is a new global effort to relate the
elements of the international economic system and mankind's need for a safe
and stable natural environment. Therefore, it is the intent of Governments
that consensus-building at the intersection of the environmental and trade and
development areas will be ongoing in existing international forums, as well
as in the domestic policy of each country.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Promoting sustainable development through trade

Basis for action

2.5. An open, equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and predictable
multilateral trading system that is consistent with the goals of sustainable
development and leads to the optimal distribution of global production in
accordance with comparative advantage is of benefit to all trading partners.
Moreover, improved market access for developing countries' exports in
conjunction with sound macroeconomic and environmental policies would have a
positive environmental impact and therefore make an important contribution
towards sustainable development.

2.6. Experience has shown that sustainable development requires a commitment
to sound economic policies and management, an effective and predictable public
administration, the integration of environmental concerns into decision-making
and progress towards democratic government, in the light of country-specific
conditions, which allows for full participation of all parties concerned.
These attributes are essential for the fulfilment of the policy directions and
objectives listed below.

2.7. The commodity sector dominates the economies of many developing
countries in terms of production, employment and export earnings. An
important feature of the world commodity economy in the 1980s was the
prevalence of very low and declining real prices for most commodities in
international markets and a resulting substantial contraction in commodity
export earnings for many producing countries. The ability of those countries
to mobilize, through international trade, the resources needed to finance
investments required for sustainable development may be impaired by this
development and by tariff and non-tariff impediments, including tariff
escalation, limiting their access to export markets. The removal of existing
distortions in international trade is essential. In particular, the
achievement of this objective requires that there be substantial and
progressive reduction in the support and protection of agriculture - covering
internal regimes, market access and export subsidies - as well as of industry
and other sectors, in order to avoid inflicting large losses on the more
efficient producers, especially in developing countries. Thus, in
agriculture, industry and other sectors, there is scope for initiatives aimed
at trade liberalization and at policies to make production more responsive to
environment and development needs. Trade liberalization should therefore be
pursued on a global basis across economic sectors so as to contribute to
sustainable development.

2.8. The international trading environment has been affected by a number of
developments that have created new challenges and opportunities and have made
multilateral economic cooperation of even greater importance. World trade has
continued to grow faster than world output in recent years. However, the
expansion of world trade has been unevenly spread, and only a limited number
of developing countries have been capable of achieving appreciable growth in
their exports. Protectionist pressures and unilateral policy actions continue
to endanger the functioning of an open multilateral trading system, affecting
particularly the export interests of developing countries. Economic
integration processes have intensified in recent years and should impart
dynamism to global trade and enhance the trade and development possibilities
for developing countries. In recent years, a growing number of these
countries have adopted courageous policy reforms involving ambitious
autonomous trade liberalization, while far-reaching reforms and profound
restructuring processes are taking place in Central and Eastern European
countries, paving the way for their integration into the world economy and the
international trading system. Increased attention is being devoted to
enhancing the role of enterprises and promoting competitive markets through
adoption of competitive policies. The GSP has proved to be a useful trade
policy instrument, although its objectives will have to be fulfilled, and
trade facilitation strategies relating to electronic data interchange (EDI)
have been effective in improving the trading efficiency of the public and
private sectors. The interactions between environment policies and trade
issues are manifold and have not yet been fully assessed. An early, balanced,
comprehensive and successful outcome of the Uruguay Round of multilateral
trade negotiations would bring about further liberalization and expansion of
world trade, enhance the trade and development possibilities of developing
countries and provide greater security and predictability to the international
trading system.

Objectives

2.9. In the years ahead, and taking into account the results of the Uruguay
Round of multilateral trade negotiations, Governments should continue to
strive to meet the following objectives:

(a) To promote an open, non-discriminatory and equitable multilateral
trading system that will enable all countries - in particular, the developing
countries - to improve their economic structures and improve the standard of
living of their populations through sustained economic development;

(b) To improve access to markets for exports of developing countries;

(c) To improve the functioning of commodity markets and achieve sound,
compatible and consistent commodity policies at national and international
levels with a view to optimizing the contribution of the commodity sector to
sustainable development, taking into account environmental considerations;

(d) To promote and support policies, domestic and international, that
make economic growth and environmental protection mutually supportive.

Activities

(a) International and regional cooperation and coordination

Promoting an international trading system that takes account of the
needs of developing countries

2.10. Accordingly, the international community should:

(a) Halt and reverse protectionism in order to bring about further
liberalization and expansion of world trade, to the benefit of all countries,
in particular the developing countries;

(b) Provide for an equitable, secure, non-discriminatory and
predictable international trading system;

(c) Facilitate, in a timely way, the integration of all countries into
the world economy and the international trading system;

(d) Ensure that environment and trade policies are mutually
supportive, with a view to achieving sustainable development;
(e) Strengthen the international trade policies system through an
early, balanced, comprehensive and successful outcome of the Uruguay Round of
multilateral trade negotiations.

2.11. The international community should aim at finding ways and means of
achieving a better functioning and enhanced transparency of commodity markets,
greater diversification of the commodity sector in developing economies within
a macroeconomic framework that takes into consideration a country's economic
structure, resource endowments and market opportunities, and better management
of natural resources that takes into account the necessities of sustainable
development.

2.12. Therefore, all countries should implement previous commitments to halt
and reverse protectionism and further expand market access, particularly in
areas of interest to developing countries. This improvement of market access
will be facilitated by appropriate structural adjustment in developed
countries. Developing countries should continue the trade-policy reforms and
structural adjustment they have undertaken. It is thus urgent to achieve an
improvement in market access conditions for commodities, notably through the
progressive removal of barriers that restrict imports, particularly from
developing countries, of commodity products in primary and processed forms,
as well as the substantial and progressive reduction of types of support that
induce uncompetitive production, such as production and export subsidies.

(b) Management related activities

Developing domestic policies that maximize the benefits of trade
liberalization for sustainable development

2.13. For developing countries to benefit from the liberalization of trading
systems, they should implement the following policies, as appropriate:

(a) Create a domestic environment supportive of an optimal balance
between production for the domestic and export markets and remove biases
against exports and discourage inefficient import-substitution;

(b) Promote the policy framework and the infrastructure required to
improve the efficiency of export and import trade as well as the functioning
of domestic markets.

2.14. The following policies should be adopted by developing countries with
respect to commodities consistent with market efficiency:

(a) Expand processing, distribution and improve marketing practices
and the competitiveness of the commodity sector;

(b) Diversify in order to reduce dependence on commodity exports;

(c) Reflect efficient and sustainable use of factors of production in
the formation of commodity prices, including the reflection of environmental,
social and resources costs.

(c) Data and information

Encouraging data collection and research

2.15. GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant institutions should continue to collect
appropriate trade data and information. The Secretary-General of the United
Nations is requested to strengthen the Trade Control Measures Information
System managed by UNCTAD.

Improving international cooperation in commodity trade and the
diversification of the sector

2.16. With regard to commodity trade, Governments should, directly or through
appropriate international organizations, where appropriate:

(a) Seek optimal functioning of commodity markets, inter alia, through
improved market transparency involving exchanges of views and information on
investment plans, prospects and markets for individual commodities.
Substantive negotiations between producers and consumers should be pursued
with a view to achieving viable and more efficient international agreements
that take into account market trends, or arrangements, as well as study
groups. In this regard, particular attention should be paid to the agreements
on cocoa, coffee, sugar and tropical timber. The importance of international
commodity agreements and arrangements is underlined. Occupational health and
safety matters, technology transfer and services associated with the
production, marketing and promotion of commodities, as well as environmental
considerations, should be taken into account;

(b) Continue to apply compensation mechanisms for shortfalls in
commodity export earnings of developing countries in order to encourage
diversification efforts;

(c) Provide assistance to developing countries upon request in the
design and implementation of commodity policies and the gathering and
utilization of information on commodity markets;

(d) Support the efforts of developing countries to promote the policy
framework and infrastructure required to improve the efficiency of export and
import trade;

(e) Support the diversification initiatives of the developing
countries at the national, regional and international levels.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

2.17. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities in this programme area to be about
$8.8 billion from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Capacity-building

2.18. The above-mentioned technical cooperation activities aim at
strengthening national capabilities for design and implementation of commodity
policy, use and management of national resources and the gathering and
utilization of information on commodity markets.

B. Making trade and environment mutually supportive

Basis for action

2.19. Environment and trade policies should be mutually supportive. An open,
multilateral trading system makes possible a more efficient allocation and use
of resources and thereby contributes to an increase in production and incomes
and to lessening demands on the environment. It thus provides additional
resources needed for economic growth and development and improved
environmental protection. A sound environment, on the other hand, provides
the ecological and other resources needed to sustain growth and underpin a
continuing expansion of trade. An open, multilateral trading system,
supported by the adoption of sound environmental policies, would have a
positive impact on the environment and contribute to sustainable development.

2.20. International cooperation in the environmental field is growing, and
in a number of cases trade provisions in multilateral environment agreements
have played a role in tackling global environmental challenges. Trade
measures have thus been used in certain specific instances, where considered
necessary, to enhance the effectiveness of environmental regulations for the
protection of the environment. Such regulations should address the root
causes of environmental degradation so as not to result in unjustified
restrictions on trade. The challenge is to ensure that trade and environment
policies are consistent and reinforce the process of sustainable development.
However, account should be taken of the fact that environmental standards
valid for developed countries may have unwarranted social and economic costs
in developing countries.

Objectives

2.21. Governments should strive to meet the following objectives, through
relevant multilateral forums, including GATT, UNCTAD and other international
organizations:

(a) To make international trade and environment policies mutually
supportive in favour of sustainable development;

(b) To clarify the role of GATT, UNCTAD and other international
organizations in dealing with trade and environment-related issues, including,
where relevant, conciliation procedure and dispute settlement;

(c) To encourage international productivity and competitiveness and
encourage a constructive role on the part of industry in dealing with
environment and development issues.

Activities

Developing an environment/trade and development agenda

2.22. Governments should encourage GATT, UNCTAD and other relevant
international and regional economic institutions to examine, in accordance
with their respective mandates and competences, the following propositions and
principles:

(a) Elaborate adequate studies for the better understanding of the
relationship between trade and environment for the promotion of sustainable
development;

(b) Promote a dialogue between trade, development and environment
communities;

(c) In those cases when trade measures related to environment are
used, ensure transparency and compatibility with international obligations;

(d) Deal with the root causes of environment and development problems
in a manner that avoids the adoption of environmental measures resulting in
unjustified restrictions on trade;

(e) Seek to avoid the use of trade restrictions or distortions as a
means to offset differences in cost arising from differences in environmental
standards and regulations, since their application could lead to trade
distortions and increase protectionist tendencies;

(f) Ensure that environment-related regulations or standards,
including those related to health and safety standards, do not constitute a
means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction
on trade;

(g) Ensure that special factors affecting environment and trade
policies in the developing countries are borne in mind in the application of
environmental standards, as well as in the use of any trade measures. It is
worth noting that standards that are valid in the most advanced countries may
be inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the developing countries;

(h) Encourage participation of developing countries in multilateral
agreements through such mechanisms as special transitional rules;

(i) Avoid unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges
outside the jurisdiction of the importing country. Environmental measures
addressing transborder or global environmental problems should, as far as
possible, be based on an international consensus. Domestic measures targeted
to achieve certain environmental objectives may need trade measures to render
them effective. Should trade policy measures be found necessary for the
enforcement of environmental policies, certain principles and rules should
apply. These could include, inter alia, the principle of non-discrimination;
the principle that the trade measure chosen should be the least
trade-restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; an obligation to ensure
transparency in the use of trade measures related to the environment and to
provide adequate notification of national regulations; and the need to give
consideration to the special conditions and developmental requirements of
developing countries as they move towards internationally agreed environmental
objectives;

(j) Develop more precision, where necessary, and clarify the
relationship between GATT provisions and some of the multilateral measures
adopted in the environment area;

(k) Ensure public input in the formation, negotiation and
implementation of trade policies as a means of fostering increased
transparency in the light of country-specific conditions;

(l) Ensure that environmental policies provide the appropriate legal
and institutional framework to respond to new needs for the protection of the
environment that may result from changes in production and trade
specialization.

C. Providing adequate financial resources to developing
countries

Basis for action

2.23. Investment is critical to the ability of developing countries to
achieve needed economic growth to improve the welfare of their populations and
to meet their basic needs in a sustainable manner, all without deteriorating
or depleting the resource base that underpins development. Sustainable
development requires increased investment, for which domestic and external
financial resources are needed. Foreign private investment and the return of
flight capital, which depend on a healthy investment climate, are an important
source of financial resources. Many developing countries have experienced a
decade-long situation of negative net transfer of financial resources, during
which their financial receipts were exceeded by payments they had to make, in
particular for debt-servicing. As a result, domestically mobilized resources
had to be transferred abroad instead of being invested locally in order to
promote sustainable economic development.

2.32. Good management that fosters the association of effective, efficient,
honest, equitable and accountable public administration with individual rights
and opportunities is an essential element for sustainable, broadly based
development and sound economic performance at all development levels. All
countries should increase their efforts to eradicate mismanagement of public
and private affairs, including corruption, taking into account the factors
responsible for, and agents involved in, this phenomenon.

2.33. Many indebted developing countries are undergoing structural adjustment
programmes relating to debt rescheduling or new loans. While such programmes
are necessary for improving the balance in fiscal budgets and
balance-of-payments accounts, in some cases they have resulted in adverse
social and environmental effects, such as cuts in allocations for health care,
education and environmental protection. It is important to ensure that
structural adjustment programmes do not have negative impacts on the
environment and social development so that such programmes can be more in line
with the objectives of sustainable development.

Objectives

2.34. It is necessary to establish, in the light of the country-specific
conditions, economic policy reforms that promote the efficient planning and
utilization of resources for sustainable development through sound economic
and social policies, foster entrepreneurship and the incorporation of social
and environmental costs in resource pricing, and remove sources of distortion
in the area of trade and investment.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Promoting sound economic policies

2.35. The industrialized countries and other countries in a position to do
so should strengthen their efforts:

(a) To encourage a stable and predictable international economic
environment, particularly with regard to monetary stability, real rates of
interest and fluctuations in key exchange rates;

(b) To stimulate savings and reduce fiscal deficits;

(c) To ensure that the processes of policy coordination take into
account the interests and concerns of the developing countries, including the
need to promote positive action to support the efforts of the least developed
countries to halt their marginalization in the world economy;

(d) To undertake appropriate national macroeconomic and structural
policies aimed at promoting non-inflationary growth, narrowing their major
external imbalances and increasing the adjustment capacity of their economies.

2.36. Developing countries should consider strengthening their efforts to
implement sound economic policies:

(a) That maintain the monetary and fiscal discipline required to
promote price stability and external balance;

(b) That result in realistic exchange rates;

(c) That raise domestic savings and investment, as well as improve
returns to investment.

2.37. More specifically, all countries should develop policies that improve
efficiency in the allocation of resources and take full advantage of the
opportunities offered by the changing global economic environment. In
particular, wherever appropriate, and taking into account national strategies
and objectives, countries should:

(a) Remove the barriers to progress caused by bureaucratic
inefficiencies, administrative strains, unnecessary controls and the neglect
of market conditions;

(b) Promote transparency in administration and decision-making;

(c) Encourage the private sector and foster entrepreneurship by
improving institutional facilities for enterprise creation and market entry.
The essential objective would be to simplify or remove the restrictions,
regulations and formalities that make it more complicated, costly and
time-consuming to set up and operate enterprises in many developing countries;

(d) Promote and support the investment and infrastructure required for
sustainable economic growth and diversification on an environmentally sound
and sustainable basis;

(e) Provide scope for appropriate economic instruments, including
market mechanisms, in harmony with the objectives of sustainable development
and fulfilment of basic needs;

(f) Promote the operation of effective tax systems and financial
sectors;

(g) Provide opportunities for small-scale enterprises, both farm and
non-farm, and for the indigenous population and local communities to
contribute fully to the attainment of sustainable development;

(h) Remove biases against exports and in favour of inefficient import
substitution and establish policies that allow them to benefit fully from the
flows of foreign investment, within the framework of national, social,
economic and developmental goals;

(i) Promote the creation of a domestic economic environment supportive
of an optimal balance between production for the domestic and export markets.

(b) International and regional cooperation and coordination

2.38. Governments of developed countries and those of other countries in a
position to do so should, directly or through appropriate international and
regional organizations and international lending institutions, enhance their
efforts to provide developing countries with increased technical assistance
for the following:

(a) Capacity-building in the nation's design and implementation of
economic policies, upon request;

(b) Design and operation of efficient tax systems, accounting systems
and financial sectors;

(c) Promotion of entrepreneurship.

2.39. International financial and development institutions should further
review their policies and programmes in the light of the objective of
sustainable development.

2.40. Stronger economic cooperation among developing countries has long been
accepted as an important component of efforts to promote economic growth and
technological capabilities and to accelerate development in the developing
world. Therefore, the efforts of the developing countries to promote economic
cooperation among themselves should be enhanced and continue to be supported
by the international community.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

2.41. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities in this programme area to be about
$50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Capacity-building

2.42. The above-mentioned policy changes in developing countries involve
substantial national efforts for capacity-building in the areas of public
administration, central banking, tax administration, savings institutions and
financial markets.

2.43. Particular efforts in the implementation of the four programme areas
identified in this chapter are warranted in view of the especially acute
environmental and developmental problems of the least developed countries.

END OF CHAPTER 2

Chapter 3

COMBATING POVERTY

PROGRAMME AREA

Enabling the poor to achieve sustainable livelihoods

Basis for action

3.1. Poverty is a complex multidimensional problem with origins in both the
national and international domains. No uniform solution can be found for
global application. Rather, country-specific programmes to tackle poverty and
international efforts supporting national efforts, as well as the parallel
process of creating a supportive international environment, are crucial for
a solution to this problem. The eradication of poverty and hunger, greater
equity in income distribution and human resource development remain major
challenges everywhere. The struggle against poverty is the shared
responsibility of all countries.

3.2. While managing resources sustainably, an environmental policy that
focuses mainly on the conservation and protection of resources must take due
account of those who depend on the resources for their livelihoods. Otherwise
it could have an adverse impact both on poverty and on chances for long-term
success in resource and environmental conservation. Equally, a development
policy that focuses mainly on increasing the production of goods without
addressing the sustainability of the resources on which production is based
will sooner or later run into declining productivity, which could also have
an adverse impact on poverty. A specific anti-poverty strategy is therefore
one of the basic conditions for ensuring sustainable development. An
effective strategy for tackling the problems of poverty, development and
environment simultaneously should begin by focusing on resources, production
and people and should cover demographic issues, enhanced health care and
education, the rights of women, the role of youth and of indigenous people and
local communities and a democratic participation process in association with
improved governance.

3.3. Integral to such action is, together with international support, the
promotion of economic growth in developing countries that is both sustained
and sustainable and direct action in eradicating poverty by strengthening
employment and income-generating programmes.

Objectives
3.4. The long-term objective of enabling all people to achieve sustainable
livelihoods should provide an integrating factor that allows policies to
address issues of development, sustainable resource management and poverty
eradication simultaneously. The objectives of this programme area are:

(a) To provide all persons urgently with the opportunity to earn a
sustainable livelihood;

(b) To implement policies and strategies that promote adequate levels
of funding and focus on integrated human development policies, including
income generation, increased local control of resources, local
institution-strengthening and capacity-building and greater involvement of
non-governmental organizations and local levels of government as delivery
mechanisms;

(c) To develop for all poverty-stricken areas integrated strategies and
programmes of sound and sustainable management of the environment, resource
mobilization, poverty eradication and alleviation, employment and income
generation;

(d) To create a focus in national development plans and budgets on
investment in human capital, with special policies and programmes directed at
rural areas, the urban poor, women and children.

Activities

3.5. Activities that will contribute to the integrated promotion of
sustainable livelihoods and environmental protection cover a variety of
sectoral interventions involving a range of actors, from local to global, and
are essential at every level, especially the community and local levels.
Enabling actions will be necessary at the national and international levels,
taking full account of regional and subregional conditions to support a
locally driven and country-specific approach. In general design, the
programmes should:

(a) Focus on the empowerment of local and community groups through the
principle of delegating authority, accountability and resources to the most
appropriate level to ensure that the programme will be geographically and
ecologically specific;

(b) Contain immediate measures to enable those groups to alleviate
poverty and to develop sustainability;

(c) Contain a long-term strategy aimed at establishing the best possible
conditions for sustainable local, regional and national development that would
eliminate poverty and reduce the inequalities between various population
groups. It should assist the most disadvantaged groups - in particular,
women, children and youth within those groups - and refugees. The groups
will include poor smallholders, pastoralists, artisans, fishing communities,
landless people, indigenous communities, migrants and the urban informal
sector.

3.6. The focus here is on specific cross-cutting measures - in particular,
in the areas of basic education, primary/maternal health care, and the
advancement of women.

(a) Empowering communities

3.7. Sustainable development must be achieved at every level of society.
Peoples' organizations, women's groups and non-governmental organizations are
important sources of innovation and action at the local level and have a
strong interest and proven ability to promote sustainable livelihoods.
Governments, in cooperation with appropriate international and
non-governmental organizations, should support a community-driven approach to
sustainability, which would include, inter alia:

(a) Empowering women through full participation in decision-making;

(b) Respecting the cultural integrity and the rights of indigenous
people and their communities;

(c) Promoting or establishing grass-roots mechanisms to allow for the
sharing of experience and knowledge between communities;

(d) Giving communities a large measure of participation in the
sustainable management and protection of the local natural resources in order
to enhance their productive capacity;

(e) Establishing a network of community-based learning centres for
capacity-building and sustainable development.

(b) Management-related activities

3.8. Governments, with the assistance of and in cooperation with appropriate
international, non-governmental and local community organizations, should
establish measures that will directly or indirectly:

(a) Generate remunerative employment and productive occupational
opportunities compatible with country-specific factor endowments, on a scale
sufficient to take care of prospective increases in the labour force and to
cover backlogs;

(b) With international support, where necessary, develop adequate
infrastructure, marketing systems, technology systems, credit systems and the
like and the human resources needed to support the above actions and to
achieve a widening of options for resource-poor people. High priority should
be given to basic education and professional training;

(c) Provide substantial increases in economically efficient resource
productivity and measures to ensure that the local population benefits in
adequate measure from resource use;

(d) Empower community organizations and people to enable them to achieve
sustainable livelihoods;

(e) Set up an effective primary health care and maternal health care
system accessible to all;

(f) Consider strengthening/developing legal frameworks for land
management, access to land resources and land ownership - in particular, for
women - and for the protection of tenants;

(g) Rehabilitate degraded resources, to the extent practicable, and
introduce policy measures to promote sustainable use of resources for basic
human needs;

(h) Establish new community-based mechanisms and strengthen existing
mechanisms to enable communities to gain sustained access to resources needed
by the poor to overcome their poverty;

(i) Implement mechanisms for popular participation - particularly by
poor people, especially women - in local community groups, to promote
sustainable development;

cont'd

(j) Implement, as a matter of urgency, in accordance with
country-specific conditions and legal systems, measures to ensure that women
and men have the same right to decide freely and responsibly on the number and
spacing of their children and have access to the information, education and
means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercise this right in keeping with
their freedom, dignity and personally held values, taking into account ethical
and cultural considerations. Governments should take active steps to
implement programmes to establish and strengthen preventive and curative
health facilities, which include women-centred, women-managed, safe and
effective reproductive health care and affordable, accessible services, as
appropriate, for the responsible planning of family size, in keeping with
freedom, dignity and personally held values, taking into account ethical and
cultural considerations. Programmes should focus on providing comprehensive
health care, including pre-natal care, education and information on health and
responsible parenthood and should provide the opportunity for all women to
breast-feed fully, at least during the first four months post-partum.
Programmes should fully support women's productive and reproductive roles and
well-being, with special attention to the need for providing equal and
improved health care for all children and the need to reduce the risk of
maternal and child mortality and sickness;

(k) Adopt integrated policies aiming at sustainability in the management
of urban centres;

(l) Undertake activities aimed at the promotion of food security and,
where appropriate, food self-sufficiency within the context of sustainable
agriculture;

(m) Support research on and integration of traditional methods of
production that have been shown to be environmentally sustainable;

(n) Actively seek to recognize and integrate informal-sector activities
into the economy by removing regulations and hindrances that discriminate
against activities in those sectors;

(o) Consider making available lines of credit and other facilities for
the informal sector and improved access to land for the landless poor so that
they can acquire the means of production and reliable access to natural
resources. In many instances special considerations for women are required.
Strict feasibility appraisals are needed for borrowers to avoid debt crises;

(p) Provide the poor with access to fresh water and sanitation;

(q) Provide the poor with access to primary education.

(c) Data, information and evaluation

3.9. Governments should improve the collection of information on target
groups and target areas in order to facilitate the design of focused
programmes and activities, consistent with the target-group needs and
aspirations. Evaluation of such programmes should be gender-specific, since
women are a particularly disadvantaged group.

(d) International and regional cooperation and coordination

3.10. The United Nations system, through its relevant organs, organizations
and bodies, in cooperation with Member States and with appropriate
international and non-governmental organizations, should make poverty
alleviation a major priority and should:

(a) Assist Governments, when requested, in the formulation and
implementation of national action programmes on poverty alleviation and
sustainable development. Action-oriented activities of relevance to the above
objectives, such as poverty eradication, projects and programmes supplemented
where relevant by food aid, and support and special emphasis on employment and
income generation, should be given particular attention in this regard;

(b) Promote technical cooperation among developing countries for poverty
eradication activities;

(c) Strengthen existing structures in the United Nations system for
coordination of action relating to poverty eradication, including the
establishment of a focal point for information exchange and the formulation
and implementation of replicable pilot projects to combat poverty;

(d) In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21, give high
priority to the review of the progress made in eradicating poverty;

(e) Examine the international economic framework, including resource
flows and structural adjustment programmes, to ensure that social and
environmental concerns are addressed, and in this connection, conduct a review
of the policies of international organizations, bodies and agencies, including
financial institutions, to ensure the continued provision of basic services
to the poor and needy;

(f) Promote international cooperation to address the root causes of
poverty. The development process will not gather momentum if developing
countries are weighted down by external indebtedness, if development finance
is inadequate, if barriers restrict access to markets and if commodity prices
and the terms of trade in developing countries remain depressed.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

3.11. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $30 billion, including about $15 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
This estimate overlaps estimates in other parts of Agenda 21. Actual costs
and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend
upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide
upon for implementation.

(b) Capacity-building

3.12. National capacity-building for implementation of the above activities
is crucial and should be given high priority. It is particularly important
to focus capacity-building at the local community level in order to support
a community-driven approach to sustainability and to establish and strengthen
mechanisms to allow sharing of experience and knowledge between community
groups at national and international levels. Requirements for such activities
are considerable and are related to the various relevant sectors of Agenda 21
calling for requisite international, financial and technological support.

END OF CHAPTER 3

CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS

4.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:

(a) Focusing on unsustainable patterns of production and consumption;

(b) Developing national policies and strategies to encourage changes
in unsustainable consumption patterns.

4.2. Since the issue of changing consumption patterns is very broad, it is
addressed in several parts of Agenda 21, notably those dealing with energy,
transportation and wastes, and in the chapters on economic instruments and the
transfer of technology. The present chapter should also be read in
conjunction with chapter 5 (Demographic dynamics and sustainability).

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Focusing on unsustainable patterns
of production and consumption

Basis for action

4.3. Poverty and environmental degradation are closely interrelated. While
poverty results in certain kinds of environmental stress, the major cause of
the continued deterioration of the global environment is the unsustainable
pattern of consumption and production, particularly in industrialized
countries, which is a matter of grave concern, aggravating poverty and
imbalances.

4.4. Measures to be undertaken at the international level for the protection
and enhancement of the environment must take fully into account the current
imbalances in the global patterns of consumption and production.

4.5. Special attention should be paid to the demand for natural resources
generated by unsustainable consumption and to the efficient use of those
resources consistent with the goal of minimizing depletion and reducing
pollution. Although consumption patterns are very high in certain parts of
the world, the basic consumer needs of a large section of humanity are not
being met. This results in excessive demands and unsustainable lifestyles
among the richer segments, which place immense stress on the environment. The
poorer segments, meanwhile, are unable to meet food, health care, shelter and
educational needs. Changing consumption patterns will require a multipronged
strategy focusing on demand, meeting the basic needs of the poor, and reducing
wastage and the use of finite resources in the production process.

4.6. Growing recognition of the importance of addressing consumption has also
not yet been matched by an understanding of its implications. Some economists
are questioning traditional concepts of economic growth and underlining the
importance of pursuing economic objectives that take account of the full value
of natural resource capital. More needs to be known about the role of
consumption in relation to economic growth and population dynamics in order
to formulate coherent international and national policies.

Objectives

4.7. Action is needed to meet the following broad objectives:

(a) To promote patterns of consumption and production that reduce
environmental stress and will meet the basic needs of humanity;

(b) To develop a better understanding of the role of consumption and how
to bring about more sustainable consumption patterns.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Adopting an international approach to achieving sustainable consumption
patterns

4.8. In principle, countries should be guided by the following basic
objectives in their efforts to address consumption and lifestyles in the
context of environment and development:

(a) All countries should strive to promote sustainable consumption
patterns;

(b) Developed countries should take the lead in achieving sustainable
consumption patterns;

(c) Developing countries should seek to achieve sustainable consumption
patterns in their development process, guaranteeing the provision of basic
needs for the poor, while avoiding those unsustainable patterns, particularly
in industrialized countries, generally recognized as unduly hazardous to the
environment, inefficient and wasteful, in their development processes. This
requires enhanced technological and other assistance from industrialized
countries.

4.9. In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21 the review of
progress made in achieving sustainable consumption patterns should be given
high priority.

(b) Data and information

Undertaking research on consumption

4.10. In order to support this broad strategy, Governments, and/or private
research and policy institutes, with the assistance of regional and
international economic and environmental organizations, should make a
concerted effort to:

cont'd next post

(a) Expand or promote databases on production and consumption and
develop methodologies for analysing them;

(b) Assess the relationship between production and consumption,
environment, technological adaptation and innovation, economic growth and
development, and demographic factors;

(c) Examine the impact of ongoing changes in the structure of modern
industrial economies away from material-intensive economic growth;

(d) Consider how economies can grow and prosper while reducing the use
of energy and materials and the production of harmful materials;

(e) Identify balanced patterns of consumption worldwide which the Earth
can support in the long term.

Developing new concepts of sustainable economic growth and prosperity

4.11. Consideration should also be given to the present concepts of economic
growth and the need for new concepts of wealth and prosperity which allow
higher standards of living through changed lifestyles and are less dependent
on the Earth's finite resources and more in harmony with the Earth's carrying
capacity. This should be reflected in the evolution of new systems of
national accounts and other indicators of sustainable development.

(c) International cooperation and coordination

4.12. While international review processes exist for examining economic,
development and demographic factors, more attention needs to be paid to issues
related to consumption and production patterns and sustainable lifestyles and
environment.

4.13. In the follow-up of the implementation of Agenda 21, reviewing the role
and impact of unsustainable production and consumption patterns and lifestyles
and their relation to sustainable development should be given high priority.

Financing and cost evaluation

4.14. The Conference secretariat has estimated that implementation of this
programme is not likely to require significant new financial resources.

B. Developing national policies and strategies to encourage
changes in unsustainable consumption patterns

Basis for action

4.15. Achieving the goals of environmental quality and sustainable
development will require efficiency in production and changes in consumption
patterns in order to emphasize optimization of resource use and minimization
of waste. In many instances, this will require reorientation of existing
production and consumption patterns that have developed in industrial
societies and are in turn emulated in much of the world.

4.16. Progress can be made by strengthening positive trends and directions
that are emerging, as part of a process aimed at achieving significant changes
in the consumption patterns of industries, Governments, households and
individuals.

Objectives

4.17. In the years ahead, Governments, working with appropriate
organizations, should strive to meet the following broad objectives:

(a) To promote efficiency in production processes and reduce wasteful
consumption in the process of economic growth, taking into account the
development needs of developing countries;

(b) To develop a domestic policy framework that will encourage a shift
to more sustainable patterns of production and consumption;

(c) To reinforce both values that encourage sustainable production and
consumption patterns and policies that encourage the transfer of
environmentally sound technologies to developing countries.

Activities
(a) Encouraging greater efficiency in the use of energy and resources

4.18. Reducing the amount of energy and materials used per unit in the
production of goods and services can contribute both to the alleviation of
environmental stress and to greater economic and industrial productivity and
competitiveness. Governments, in cooperation with industry, should therefore
intensify efforts to use energy and resources in an economically efficient and
environmentally sound manner by:

(a) Encouraging the dissemination of existing environmentally sound
technologies;

(b) Promoting research and development in environmentally sound
technologies;

(c) Assisting developing countries to use these technologies efficiently
and to develop technologies suited to their particular circumstances;

(d) Encouraging the environmentally sound use of new and renewable
sources of energy;

(e) Encouraging the environmentally sound and sustainable use of
renewable natural resources.

(b) Minimizing the generation of wastes

4.19. At the same time, society needs to develop effective ways of dealing
with the problem of disposing of mounting levels of waste products and
materials. Governments, together with industry, households and the public,
should make a concerted effort to reduce the generation of wastes and waste
products by:

(a) Encouraging recycling in industrial processes and at the consumed
level;

(b) Reducing wasteful packaging of products;

(c) Encouraging the introduction of more environmentally sound products.

(c) Assisting individuals and households to make environmentally sound
purchasing decisions

4.20. The recent emergence in many countries of a more environmentally
conscious consumer public, combined with increased interest on the part of
some industries in providing environmentally sound consumer products, is a
significant development that should be encouraged. Governments and
international organizations, together with the private sector, should develop
criteria and methodologies for the assessment of environmental impacts and
resource requirements throughout the full life cycle of products and
processes. Results of those assessments should be transformed into clear
indicators in order to inform consumers and decision makers.

4.21. Governments, in cooperation with industry and other relevant groups,
should encourage expansion of environmental labelling and other
environmentally related product information programmes designed to assist
consumers to make informed choices.

4.22. They should also encourage the emergence of an informed consumer public
and assist individuals and households to make environmentally informed choices
by:

(a) Providing information on the consequences of consumption choices and
behaviour so as to encourage demand for environmentally sound products and use
of products;

(b) Making consumers aware of the health and environmental impact of
products, through such means as consumer legislation and environmental
labelling;
(c) Encouraging specific consumer-oriented programmes, such as recycling
and deposit/refund systems.

(d) Exercising leadership through government purchasing

4.23. Governments themselves also play a role in consumption, particularly
in countries where the public sector plays a large role in the economy and can
have a considerable influence on both corporate decisions and public
perceptions. They should therefore review the purchasing policies of their
agencies and departments so that they may improve, where possible, the
environmental content of government procurement policies, without prejudice
to international trade principles.

(e) Moving towards environmentally sound pricing

4.24. Without the stimulus of prices and market signals that make clear to
producers and consumers the environmental costs of the consumption of energy,
materials and natural resources and the generation of wastes, significant
changes in consumption and production patterns seem unlikely to occur in the
near future.

4.25. Some progress has begun in the use of appropriate economic instruments
to influence consumer behaviour. These instruments include environmental
charges and taxes, deposit/refund systems, etc. This process should be
encouraged in the light of country-specific conditions.

(f) Reinforcing values that support sustainable consumption

4.26. Governments and private-sector organizations should promote more
positive attitudes towards sustainable consumption through education, public
awareness programmes and other means, such as positive advertising of products
and services that utilize environmentally sound technologies or encourage
sustainable production and consumption patterns. In the review of the
implementation of Agenda 21, an assessment of the progress achieved in
developing these national policies and strategies should be given due
consideration.

Means of implementation

4.27. This programme is concerned primarily with changes in unsustainable
patterns of consumption and production and values that encourage sustainable
consumption patterns and lifestyles. It requires the combined efforts of
Governments, consumers and producers. Particular attention should be paid to
the significant role played by women and households as consumers and the
potential impacts of their combined purchasing power on the economy.

END OF CHAPTER 4

Chapter 5

DEMOGRAPHIC DYNAMICS AND SUSTAINABILITY

5.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:

(a) Developing and disseminating knowledge concerning the links
between demographic trends and factors and sustainable development;

(b) Formulating integrated national policies for environment and
development, taking into account demographic trends and factors;

(c) Implementing integrated, environment and development programmes
at the local level, taking into account demographic trends and factors.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Developing and disseminating knowledge concerning
the links between demographic trends and factors
and sustainable development

Basis for action

5.2. Demographic trends and factors and sustainable development have a
synergistic relationship.

5.3. The growth of world population and production combined with
unsustainable consumption patterns places increasingly severe stress on the
life-supporting capacities of our planet. These interactive processes affect
the use of land, water, air, energy and other resources. Rapidly growing
cities, unless well-managed, face major environmental problems. The increase
in both the number and size of cities calls for greater attention to issues
of local government and municipal management. The human dimensions are key
elements to consider in this intricate set of relationships and they should
be adequately taken into consideration in comprehensive policies for
sustainable development. Such policies should address the linkages of
demographic trends and factors, resource use, appropriate technology
dissemination, and development. Population policy should also recognize the
role played by human beings in environmental and development concerns. There
is a need to increase awareness of this issue among decision makers at all
levels and to provide both better information on which to base national and
international policies and a framework against which to interpret this
information.

5.4. There is a need to develop strategies to mitigate both the adverse
impact on the environment of human activities and the adverse impact of
environmental change on human populations. The world's population is expected
to exceed 8 billion by the year 2020. Sixty per cent of the world's
population already live in coastal areas, while 65 per cent of cities with
populations above 2.5 million are located along the world coasts; several of
them are already at or below the present sea level.

Objectives

5.5. The following objectives should be achieved as soon as practicable:

(a) To incorporate demographic trends and factors in the global
analysis of environment and development issues;

(b) To develop a better understanding of the relationships among
demographic dynamics, technology, cultural behaviour, natural resources and
life support systems;

(c) To assess human vulnerability in ecologically sensitive areas and
centres of population to determine the priorities for action at all levels,
taking full account of community defined needs.

Activities

Research on the interaction between demographic trends and factors and
sustainable development

5.6. Relevant international, regional and national institutions should
consider undertaking the following activities:

(a) Identifying the interactions between demographic processes,
natural resources and life support systems, bearing in mind regional and
subregional variations deriving from, inter alia, different levels of
development;

(b) Integrating demographic trends and factors into the ongoing study
of environmental change, using the expertise of international, regional and
national research networks and of local communities, first, to study the human
dimensions of environmental change and, second, to identify vulnerable areas;

(c) Identifying priority areas for action and developing strategies
and programmes to mitigate the adverse impact of environmental change on human
populations, and vice versa.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

5.7. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$10 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Strengthening research programmes that integrate population,
environment and development

5.8. In order to integrate demographic analysis into a broader social science
perspective on environment and development, interdisciplinary research should
be increased. International institutions and networks of experts should
enhance their scientific capacity, taking full account of community experience
and knowledge, and should disseminate the experience gained in
multidisciplinary approaches and in linking theory to action.
5.9. Better modelling capabilities should be developed, identifying the range
of possible outcomes of current human activities, especially the interrelated
impact of demographic trends and factors, per capita resource use and wealth
distribution, as well as the major migration flows that may be expected with
increasing climatic events and cumulative environmental change that may
destroy people's local livelihoods.

(c) Developing information and public awareness

5.10. Socio-demographic information should be developed in a suitable format
for interfacing with physical, biological and socio-economic data. Compatible
spatial and temporal scales, cross-country and time-series information, as
well as global behavioural indicators should be developed, learning from local
communities' perceptions and attitudes.

5.11. Awareness should be increased at all levels concerning the need to
optimize the sustainable use of resources through efficient resource
management, taking into account the development needs of the populations of
developing countries.

5.12. Awareness should be increased of the fundamental linkages between
improving the status of women and demographic dynamics, particularly through
women's access to education, primary and reproductive health care programmes,
economic independence and their effective, equitable participation in all
levels of decision-making.

5.13. Results of research concerned with sustainable development issues
should be disseminated through technical reports, scientific journals, the
media, workshops, forums or other means so that the information can be used
by decision makers at all levels and increase public awareness.

(d) Developing and/or enhancing institutional capacity and collaboration

cont'd

5.14. Collaboration and exchange of information should be increased between
research institutions and international, regional and national agencies and
all other sectors (including the private sector, local communities,
non-governmental organizations and scientific institutions) from both the
industrialized and developing countries, as appropriate.

5.15. Efforts should be intensified to enhance the capacities of national and
local governments, the private sector and non-governmental organizations in
developing countries to meet the growing needs for improved management of
rapidly growing urban areas.

B. Formulating integrated national policies for
environment and development, taking into
account demographic trends and factors

Basis for action

5.16. Existing plans for sustainable development have generally recognized
demographic trends and factors as elements that have a critical influence on
consumption patterns, production, lifestyles and long-term sustainability.
But in future, more attention will have to be given to these issues in general
policy formulation and the design of development plans. To do this, all
countries will have to improve their own capacities to assess the environment
and development implications of their demographic trends and factors. They
will also need to formulate and implement policies and action programmes where
appropriate. Policies should be designed to address the consequences of
population growth built into population momentum, while at the same time
incorporating measures to bring about demographic transition. They should
combine environmental concerns and population issues within a holistic view
of development whose primary goals include the alleviation of poverty; secure
livelihoods; good health; quality of life; improvement of the status and
income of women and their access to schooling and professional training, as
well as fulfilment of their personal aspirations; and empowerment of
individuals and communities. Recognizing that large increases in the size and
number of cities will occur in developing countries under any likely
population scenario, greater attention should be given to preparing for the
needs, in particular of women and children, for improved municipal management
and local government.

Objective

5.17. Full integration of population concerns into national planning, policy
and decision-making processes should continue. Population policies and
programmes should be considered, with full recognition of women's rights.

Activities

5.18. Governments and other relevant actors could, inter alia, undertake the
following activities, with appropriate assistance from aid agencies, and
report on their status of implementation to the International Conference on
Population and Development to be held in 1994, especially to its committee on
population and environment.

(a) Assessing the implications of national demographic trends and factors

5.19. The relationships between demographic trends and factors and
environmental change and between environmental degradation and the components
of demographic change should be analysed.

5.20. Research should be conducted on how environmental factors interact with
socio-economic factors as a cause of migration.

5.21. Vulnerable population groups (such as rural landless workers, ethnic
minorities, refugees, migrants, displaced people, women heads of household)
whose changes in demographic structure may have specific impacts on
sustainable development should be identified.

5.22. An assessment should be made of the implications of the age structure
of the population on resource demand and dependency burdens, ranging from
educational expenses for the young to health care and support for the elderly,
and on household income generation.

5.23. An assessment should also be made of national population carrying
capacity in the context of satisfaction of human needs and sustainable
development, and special attention should be given to critical resources, such
as water and land, and environmental factors, such as ecosystem health and
biodiversity.

5.24. The impact of national demographic trends and factors on the
traditional livelihoods of indigenous groups and local communities, including
changes in traditional land use because of internal population pressures,
should be studied.

(b) Building and strengthening a national information base

5.25. National databases on demographic trends and factors and environment
should be built and/or strengthened, disaggregating data by ecological region
(ecosystem approach), and population/environment profiles should be
established by region.

5.26. Methodologies and instruments should be developed to identify areas
where sustainability is, or may be, threatened by the environmental effects
of demographic trends and factors, incorporating both current and projected
demographic data linked to natural environmental processes.

5.27. Case-studies of local level responses by different groups to
demographic dynamics should be developed, particularly in areas subject to
environmental stress and in deteriorating urban centres.

5.28. Population data should be disaggregated by, inter alia, sex and age in
order to take into account the implications of the gender division of labour
for the use and management of natural resources.

(c) Incorporating demographic features into policies and plans

5.29. In formulating human settlements policies, account should be taken of
resource needs, waste production and ecosystem health.

5.30. The direct and induced effects of demographic changes on environment
and development programmes should, where appropriate, be integrated, and the
impact on demographic features assessed.

5.31. National population policy goals and programmes that are consistent
with national environment and development plans for sustainability and in
keeping with the freedom, dignity and personally held values of individuals
should be established and implemented.

5.32. Appropriate socio-economic policies for the young and the elderly, both
in terms of family and state support systems, should be developed.

5.33. Policies and programmes should be developed for handling the various
types of migrations that result from or induce environmental disruptions, with
special attention to women and vulnerable groups.

5.34. Demographic concerns, including concerns for environmental migrants and
displaced people, should be incorporated in the programmes for sustainable
development of relevant international and regional institutions.

5.35. National reviews should be conducted and the integration of population
policies in national development and environment strategies should be
monitored nationally.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

5.36. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$90 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Raising awareness of demographic and sustainable development
interactions

5.37. Understanding of the interactions between demographic trends and
factors and sustainable development should be increased in all sectors of
society. Stress should be placed on local and national action. Demographic
and sustainable development education should be coordinated and integrated in
both the formal and non-formal education sectors. Particular attention should
be given to population literacy programmes, notably for women. Special
emphasis should be placed on the linkage between these programmes, primary
environmental care and the provision of primary health care and services.

(c) Strengthening institutions

5.38. The capacity of national, regional and local structures to deal with
issues relating to demographic trends and factors and sustainable development
should be enhanced. This would involve strengthening the relevant bodies
responsible for population issues to enable them to elaborate policies
consistent with the national prospects for sustainable development.
Cooperation among government, national research institutions, non-governmental
organizations and local communities in assessing problems and evaluating
policies should also be enhanced.

5.39. The capacity of the relevant United Nations organs, organizations and
bodies, international and regional intergovernmental bodies, non-governmental
organizations and local communities should, as appropriate, be enhanced to
help countries develop sustainable development policies on request and, as
appropriate, provide assistance to environmental migrants and displaced
people.

5.40. Inter-agency support for national sustainable development policies and
programmes should be improved through better coordination of population and
environment activities.

(d) Promoting human resource development

cont'd

5.41. The international and regional scientific institutions should assist
Governments, upon request, to include concerns regarding the
population/environment interactions at the global, ecosystem and micro-levels
in the training of demographers and population and environment specialists.
Training should include research on linkages and ways to design integrated
strategies.

C. Implementing integrated environment and development
programmes at the local level, taking into account
demographic trends and factors

Basis for action

5.42. Population programmes are more effective when implemented together with
appropriate cross-sectoral policies. To attain sustainability at the local
level, a new framework is needed that integrates demographic trends and
factors with such factors as ecosystem health, technology and human
settlements, and with socio-economic structures and access to resources.
Population programmes should be consistent with socio-economic and
environmental planning. Integrated sustainable development programmes should
closely correlate action on demographic trends and factors with resource
management activities and development goals that meet the needs of the people
concerned.

Objective

5.43. Population programmes should be implemented along with natural resource
management and development programmes at the local level that will ensure
sustainable use of natural resources, improve the quality of life of the
people and enhance environmental quality.

Activities

5.44. Governments and local communities, including community-based women's
organizations and national non-governmental organizations, consistent with
national plans, objectives, strategies and priorities, could, inter alia,
undertake the activities set out below with the assistance and cooperation of
international organizations, as appropriate. Governments could share their
experience in the implementation of Agenda 21 at the International Conference
on Population and Development, to be held in 1994, especially its committee
on population and environment.

(a) Developing a framework for action

5.45. An effective consultative process should be established and implemented
with concerned groups of society where the formulation and decision-making of
all components of the programmes are based on a nationwide consultative
process drawing on community meetings, regional workshops and national
seminars, as appropriate. This process should ensure that views of women and
men on needs, perspective and constraints are equally well reflected in the
design of programmes, and that solutions are rooted in specific experience.
The poor and underprivileged should be priority groups in this process.

5.46. Nationally determined policies for integrated and multifaceted
programmes, with special attention to women, to the poorest people living in
critical areas and to other vulnerable groups should be implemented, ensuring
the involvement of groups with a special potential to act as agents for change
and sustainable development. Special emphasis should be placed on those
programmes that achieve multiple objectives, encouraging sustainable economic
development, and mitigating adverse impacts of demographic trends and factors,
and avoiding long-term environmental damage. Food security, access to secure
tenure, basic shelter, and essential infrastructure, education, family
welfare, women's reproductive health, family credit schemes, reforestation
programmes, primary environmental care, women's employment should, as
appropriate, be included among other factors.

5.47. An analytical framework should be developed to identify complementary
elements of sustainable development policies as well as the national
mechanisms to monitor and evaluate their effects on population dynamics.

5.48. Special attention should be given to the critical role of women in
population/environment programmes and in achieving sustainable development.
Projects should take advantage of opportunities to link social, economic and
environmental gains for women and their families. Empowerment of women is
essential and should be assured through education, training and policies to
accord and improve women's right and access to assets, human and civil rights,
labour-saving measures, job opportunities and participation in
decision-making. Population/environment programmes must enable women to
mobilize themselves to alleviate their burden and improve their capacity to
participate in and benefit from socio-economic development. Specific measures
should be undertaken to close the gap between female and male illiteracy
rates.

(b) Supporting programmes that promote changes in demographic trends and
factors towards sustainability

5.49. Reproductive health programmes and services, should, as appropriate,
be developed and enhanced to reduce maternal and infant mortality from all
causes and enable women and men to fulfil their personal aspirations in terms
of family size, in a way in keeping with their freedom and dignity and
personally held values.

5.50. Governments should take active steps to implement, as a matter of
urgency, in accordance with country-specific conditions and legal systems,
measures to ensure that women and men have the same right to decide freely and
responsibly on the number and spacing of their children, to have access to the
information, education and means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercise
this right in keeping with their freedom, dignity and personally held values
taking into account ethical and cultural considerations.

cont'd

5.51. Governments should take active steps to implement programmes to
establish and strengthen preventive and curative health facilities that
include women-centred, women-managed, safe and effective reproductive health
care and affordable, accessible services, as appropriate, for the responsible
planning of family size, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held
values and taking into account ethical and cultural considerations.
Programmes should focus on providing comprehensive health care, including
pre-natal care, education and information on health and responsible parenthood
and should provide the opportunity for all women to breast-feed fully, at
least during the first four months post-partum. Programmes should fully
support women's productive and reproductive roles and well being, with special
attention to the need for providing equal and improved health care for all
children and the need to reduce the risk of maternal and child mortality and
sickness.

5.52. Consistent with national priorities, culturally based information and
education programmes that transmit reproductive health messages to men and
women that are easily understood should be developed.

(c) Creating appropriate institutional conditions

5.53. Constituencies and institutional conditions to facilitate the
implementation of demographic activities should, as appropriate, be fostered.
This requires support and commitment from political, indigenous, religious and
traditional authorities, the private sector and the national scientific
community. In developing these appropriate institutional conditions,
countries should closely involve established national machinery for women.

5.54. Population assistance should be coordinated with bilateral and
multilateral donors to ensure that population needs and requirements of all
developing countries are addressed, fully respecting the overall coordinating
responsibility and the choice and strategies of the recipient countries.

5.55. Coordination should be improved at local and international levels.
Working practices should be enhanced in order to make optimum use of
resources, draw on collective experience and improve the implementation of
programmes. UNFPA and other relevant agencies should strengthen the
coordination of international cooperation activities with recipient and donor
countries in order to ensure that adequate funding is available to respond to
growing needs.

5.56. Proposals should be developed for local, national and international
population/environment programmes in line with specific needs for achieving
sustainability. Where appropriate, institutional changes must be implemented
so that old-age security does not entirely depend on input from family
members.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

5.57. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$7 billion, including about $3.5 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Research

5.58. Research should be undertaken with a view to developing specific action
programmes; it will be necessary to establish priorities between proposed
areas of research.

5.59. Socio-demographic research should be conducted on how populations
respond to a changing environment.

5.60. Understanding of socio-cultural and political factors that can
positively influence acceptance of appropriate population policy instruments
should be improved.

5.61. Surveys of changes in needs for appropriate services relating to
responsible planning of family size, reflecting variations among different
socio-economic groups and variations in different geographical regions should
be undertaken.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

5.62. The areas of human resource development and capacity-building, with
particular attention to the education and training of women, are areas of
critical importance and are a very high priority in the implementation of
population programmes.

5.63. Workshops to help programme and projects managers to link population
programmes to other development and environmental goals should be conducted.

5.64. Educational materials, including guides/workbooks for planners and
decision makers and other actors of population/environment/development
programmes, should be developed.

5.65. Cooperation should be developed between Governments, scientific
institutions and non-governmental organizations within the region, and similar
institutions outside the region. Cooperation with local organizations should
be fostered in ordered to raise awareness, engage in demonstration projects
and report on the experience gained.

5.66. The recommendations contained in this chapter should in no way
prejudice discussions at the International Conference on Population and
Development in 1994, which will be the appropriate forum for dealing with
population and development issues, taking into account the recommendations of
the International Conference on Population, held in Mexico City in 1984, 1/
and the Forward-looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, 2/ adopted
by the World Conference to Review and Appraise the Achievements of the United
Decade for Women: Equality, Development and Peace, held in Nairobi in 1985.

Notes

1/ Report of the International Conference on Population, Mexico City,
6-14 August 1984 (United Nations publication, Sales No. E.84.XIII.8),
chap. I.

2/ Report of the World Conference to Review and Appraise the
Achievements of the United Nations Decade for Women: Equality, Development
and Peace, Nairobi, 15-26 July 1985 (United Nations publication, Sales
No. E.84.IV.10), chap. I, sect. A.

END OF CHAPTER 5
.

Chapter 6

PROTECTING AND PROMOTING HUMAN HEALTH

INTRODUCTION

6.1. Health and development are intimately interconnected. Both insufficient
development leading to poverty and inappropriate development resulting in
overconsumption, coupled with an expanding world population, can result in
severe environmental health problems in both developing and developed nations.
Action items under Agenda 21 must address the primary health needs of the
world's population, since they are integral to the achievement of the goals
of sustainable development and primary environmental care. The linkage of
health, environmental and socio-economic improvements requires intersectoral
efforts. Such efforts, involving education, housing, public works and
community groups, including businesses, schools and universities and
religious, civic and cultural organizations, are aimed at enabling people in
their communities to ensure sustainable development. Particularly relevant
is the inclusion of prevention programmes rather than relying solely on
remediation and treatment. Countries ought to develop plans for priority
actions, drawing on the programme areas in this chapter, which are based on
cooperative planning by the various levels of government, non-governmental
organizations and local communities. An appropriate international
organization, such as WHO, should coordinate these activities.

6.2. The following programme areas are contained in this chapter:

(a) Meeting primary health care needs, particularly in rural areas;

(b) Control of communicable diseases;

(c) Protecting vulnerable groups;

(d) Meeting the urban health challenge;

(e) Reducing health risks from environmental pollution and hazards.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Meeting primary health care needs, particularly in rural areas

Basis for action
6.3. Health ultimately depends on the ability to manage successfully the
interaction between the physical, spiritual, biological and economic/social
environment. Sound development is not possible without a healthy population;
yet most developmental activities affect the environment to some degree, which
in turn causes or exacerbates many health problems. Conversely, it is the
very lack of development that adversely affects the health condition of many
people, which can be alleviated only through development. The health sector
cannot meet basic needs and objectives on its own; it is dependent on social,
economic and spiritual development, while directly contributing to such
development. It is also dependent on a healthy environment, including the
provision of a safe water supply and sanitation and the promotion of a safe
food supply and proper nutrition. Particular attention should be directed
towards food safety, with priority placed on the elimination of food
contamination; comprehensive and sustainable water policies to ensure safe
drinking water and sanitation to preclude both microbial and chemical
contamination; and promotion of health education, immunization and provision
of essential drugs. Education and appropriate services regarding responsible
planning of family size, with respect for cultural, religious and social
aspects, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held values and
taking into account ethical and cultural considerations, also contribute to
these intersectoral activities.

Objectives

6.4. Within the overall strategy to achieve health for all by the year 2000,
the objectives are to meet the basic health needs of rural peri-urban and
urban populations; to provide the necessary specialized environmental health
services; and to coordinate the involvement of citizens, the health sector,
the health-related sectors and relevant non-health sectors (business, social,
educational and religious institutions) in solutions to health problems. As
a matter of priority, health service coverage should be achieved for
population groups in greatest need, particularly those living in rural areas.

Activities

6.5. National Governments and local authorities, with the support of relevant
non-governmental organizations and international organizations, in the light
of countries' specific conditions and needs, should strengthen their health
sector programmes, with special attention to rural needs, to:

(a) Build basic health infrastructures, monitoring and planning
systems:

(i) Develop and strengthen primary health care systems that are
practical, community-based, scientifically sound, socially
acceptable and appropriate to their needs and that meet basic
health needs for clean water, safe food and sanitation;

(ii) Support the use and strengthening of mechanisms that improve
coordination between health and related sectors at all
appropriate levels of government, and in communities and relevant
organizations;

(iii) Develop and implement rational and affordable approaches to the
establishment and maintenance of health facilities;

(iv) Ensure and, where appropriate, increase provision of social
services support;

(v) Develop strategies, including reliable health indicators, to
monitor the progress and evaluate the effectiveness of health
programmes;

(vi) Explore ways to finance the health system based on the assessment
of the resources needed and identify the various financing
alternatives;

(vii) Promote health education in schools, information exchange,
technical support and training;
(viii) Support initiatives for self-management of services by vulnerable
groups;

(ix) Integrate traditional knowledge and experience into national
health systems, as appropriate;

(x) Promote the provisions for necessary logistics for outreach
activities, particularly in rural areas;

(xi) Promote and strengthen community-based rehabilitation activities
for the rural handicapped.

(b) Support research and methodology development:

(i) Establish mechanisms for sustained community involvement in
environmental health activities, including optimization of the
appropriate use of community financial and human resources;

(ii) Conduct environmental health research, including behaviour
research and research on ways to increase coverage and ensure
greater utilization of services by peripheral, underserved and
vulnerable populations, as appropriate to good prevention
services and health care;

(iii) Conduct research into traditional knowledge of prevention and
curative health practices.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

6.6. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$40 billion, including about $5 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

6.7. New approaches to planning and managing health care systems and
facilities should be tested, and research on ways of integrating appropriate
technologies into health infrastructures supported. The development of
scientifically sound health technology should enhance adaptability to local
needs and maintainability by community resources, including the maintenance
and repair of equipment used in health care. Programmes to facilitate the
transfer and sharing of information and expertise should be developed,
including communication methods and educational materials.

(c) Human resource development

6.8. Intersectoral approaches to the reform of health personnel development
should be strengthened to ensure its relevance to the "Health for All"
strategies. Efforts to enhance managerial skills at the district level should
be supported, with the aim of ensuring the systematic development and
efficient operation of the basic health system. Intensive, short, practical
training programmes with emphasis on skills in effective communication,
community organization and facilitation of behaviour change should be
developed in order to prepare the local personnel of all sectors involved in
social development for carrying out their respective roles. In cooperation
with the education sector, special health education programmes should be
developed focusing on the role of women in the health-care system.

(d) Capacity-building

6.9. Governments should consider adopting enabling and facilitating
strategies to promote the participation of communities in meeting their own
needs, in addition to providing direct support to the provision of health-care
services. A major focus should be the preparation of community-based health
and health-related workers to assume an active role in community health
education, with emphasis on team work, social mobilization and the support of
other development workers. National programmes should cover district health
systems in urban, peri-urban and rural areas, the delivery of health
programmes at the district level, and the development and support of referral
services.

B. Control of communicable diseases

Basis for action

6.10. Advances in the development of vaccines and chemotherapeutic agents
have brought many communicable diseases under control. However, there remain
many important communicable diseases for which environmental control measures
are indispensable, especially in the field of water supply and sanitation.
Such diseases include cholera, diarrhoeal diseases, leishmaniasis, malaria and
schistosomiasis. In all such instances, the environmental measures, either
as an integral part of primary health care or undertaken outside the health
sector, form an indispensable component of overall disease control strategies,
together with health and hygiene education, and in some cases, are the only
component.

6.11. With HIV infection levels estimated to increase to 30-40 million by the
year 2000, the socio-economic impact of the pandemic is expected to be
devastating for all countries, and increasingly for women and children. While
direct health costs will be substantial, they will be dwarfed by the indirect
costs of the pandemic - mainly costs associated with the loss of income and
decreased productivity of the workforce. The pandemic will inhibit growth of
the service and industrial sectors and significantly increase the costs of
human capacity-building and retraining. The agricultural sector is
particularly affected where production is labour-intensive.

Objectives

6.12. A number of goals have been formulated through extensive consultations
in various international forums attended by virtually all Governments,
relevant United Nations organizations (including WHO, UNICEF, UNFPA, UNESCO,
UNDP and the World Bank) and a number of non-governmental organizations.
Goals (including but not limited to those listed below) are recommended for
implementation by all countries where they are applicable, with appropriate
adaptation to the specific situation of each country in terms of phasing,
standards, priorities and availability of resources, with respect for
cultural, religious and social aspects, in keeping with freedom, dignity and
personally held values and taking into account ethical considerations.
Additional goals that are particularly relevant to a country's specific
situation should be added in the country's national plan of action (Plan of
Action for Implementing the World Declaration on the Survival, Protection and
Development of Children in the 1990s). 1/ Such national level action plans
should be coordinated and monitored from within the public health sector.
Some major goals are:

(a) By the year 2000, to eliminate guinea worm disease
(dracunculiasis);

(b) By the year 2000, eradicate polio;

(c) By the year 2000, to effectively control onchocerciasis (river
blindness) and leprosy;

(d) By 1995, to reduce measles deaths by 95 per cent and reduce
measles cases by 90 per cent compared with pre-immunization levels;

(e) By continued efforts, to provide health and hygiene education and
to ensure universal access to safe drinking water and universal access to
sanitary measures of excreta disposal, thereby markedly reducing waterborne
diseases such as cholera and schistosomiasis and reducing:
(i) By the year 2000, the number of deaths from childhood diarrhoea in developing countries by 50 to 70 per cent;

(ii) By the year 2000, the incidence of childhood diarrhoea in developing countries by at least 25 to 50 per cent;

(f) By the year 2000, to initiate comprehensive programmes to reduce
mortality from acute respiratory infections in children under five years by
at least one third, particularly in countries with high infant mortality;

(g) By the year 2000, to provide 95 per cent of the world's child
population with access to appropriate care for acute respiratory infections
within the community and at first referral level;

(h) By the year 2000, to institute anti-malaria programmes in all
countries where malaria presents a significant health problem and maintain the
transmission-free status of areas freed from endemic malaria;

(i) By the year 2000, to implement control programmes in countries
where major human parasitic infections are endemic and achieve an overall
reduction in the prevalence of schistosomiasis and of other trematode
infections by 40 per cent and 25 per cent, respectively, from a 1984 baseline,
as well as a marked reduction in incidence, prevalence and intensity of
filarial infections;

(j) To mobilize and unify national and international efforts against
AIDS to prevent infection and to reduce the personal and social impact of HIV
infection;

(k) To contain the resurgence of tuberculosis, with particular
emphasis on multiple antibiotic resistant forms;

(l) To accelerate research on improved vaccines and implement to the
fullest extent possible the use of vaccines in the prevention of disease.

Activities

6.13. Each national Government, in accordance with national plans for public
health, priorities and objectives, should consider developing a national
health action plan with appropriate international assistance and support,
including, at a minimum, the following components:

(a) National public health systems:

(i) Programmes to identify environmental hazards in the causation of
communicable diseases;

(ii) Monitoring systems of epidemiological data to ensure adequate
forecasting of the introduction, spread or aggravation of
communicable diseases;

(iii) Intervention programmes, including measures consistent with the
principles of the global AIDS strategy;

(iv) Vaccines for the prevention of communicable diseases;

(b) Public information and health education:

Provide education and disseminate information on the risks of
endemic communicable diseases and build awareness on environmental
methods for control of communicable diseases to enable communities
to play a role in the control of communicable diseases;

(c) Intersectoral cooperation and coordination:

(i) Second experienced health professionals to relevant sectors, such
as planning, housing and agriculture;

(ii) Develop guidelines for effective coordination in the areas of
professional training, assessment of risks and development of
control technology;

(d) Control of environmental factors that influence the spread of
communicable diseases:

Apply methods for the prevention and control of communicable
diseases, including water supply and sanitation control, water
pollution control, food quality control, integrated vector control,
garbage collection and disposal and environmentally sound
irrigation practices;

(e) Primary health care system:

(i) Strengthen prevention programmes, with particular emphasis on
adequate and balanced nutrition;

(ii) Strengthen early diagnostic programmes and improve capacities for
early preventative/treatment action;

(iii) Reduce the vulnerability to HIV infection of women and their
offspring;

(f) Support for research and methodology development:

(i) Intensify and expand multidisciplinary research, including focused
efforts on the mitigation and environmental control of tropical
diseases;

(ii) Carry out intervention studies to provide a solid epidemiological
basis for control policies and to evaluate the efficiency of
alternative approaches;

(iii) Undertake studies in the population and among health workers to
determine the influence of cultural, behavioural and social factors
on control policies;

(g) Development and dissemination of technology:

(i) Develop new technologies for the effective control of communicable
diseases;

(ii) Promote studies to determine how to optimally disseminate results
from research;

(iii) Ensure technical assistance, including the sharing of knowledge and
know-how.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

6.14. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$4 billion, including about $900 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

6.15. Efforts to prevent and control diseases should include investigations
of the epidemiological, social and economic bases for the development of more
effective national strategies for the integrated control of communicable
diseases. Cost-effective methods of environmental control should be adapted
to local developmental conditions.

(c) Human resource development

6.16. National and regional training institutions should promote broad
intersectoral approaches to prevention and control of communicable diseases,
including training in epidemiology and community prevention and control,
immunology, molecular biology and the application of new vaccines. Health
education materials should be developed for use by community workers and for
the education of mothers for the prevention and treatment of diarrhoeal
diseases in the home.

(d) Capacity-building

6.17. The health sector should develop adequate data on the distribution of
communicable diseases, as well as the institutional capacity to respond and
collaborate with other sectors for prevention, mitigation and correction of
communicable disease hazards through environmental protection. The advocacy
at policy- and decision-making levels should be gained, professional and
societal support mobilized, and communities organized in developing
self-reliance.

C. Protecting vulnerable groups

Basis for action

6.18. In addition to meeting basic health needs, specific emphasis has to be
given to protecting and educating vulnerable groups, particularly infants,
youth, women, indigenous people and the very poor as a prerequisite for
sustainable development. Special attention should also be paid to the health
needs of the elderly and disabled population.

6.19. Infants and children. Approximately one third of the world's
population are children under 15 years old. At least 15 million of these
children die annually from such preventable causes as birth trauma, birth
asphyxia, acute respiratory infections, malnutrition, communicable diseases
and diarrhoea. The health of children is affected more severely than other
population groups by malnutrition and adverse environmental factors, and many
children risk exploitation as cheap labour or in prostitution.

6.20. Youth. As has been the historical experience of all countries, youth
are particularly vulnerable to the problems associated with economic
development, which often weakens traditional forms of social support essential
for the healthy development, of young people. Urbanization and changes in
social mores have increased substance abuse, unwanted pregnancy and sexually
transmitted diseases, including AIDS. Currently more than half of all people
alive are under the age of 25, and four of every five live in developing
countries. Therefore it is important to ensure that historical experience is
not replicated.

6.21. Women. In developing countries, the health status of women remains
relatively low, and during the 1980s poverty, malnutrition and general
ill-health in women were even rising. Most women in developing countries
still do not have adequate basic educational opportunities and they lack the
means of promoting their health, responsibly controlling their reproductive
life and improving their socio-economic status. Particular attention should
be given to the provision of pre-natal care to ensure healthy babies.

6.22. Indigenous people and their communities. Indigenous people had their
communities make up a significant percentage of global population. The
outcomes of their experience have tended to be very similar in that the basis
of their relationship with traditional lands has been fundamentally changed.
They tend to feature disproportionately in unemployment, lack of housing,
poverty and poor health. In many countries the number of indigenous people
is growing faster than the general population. Therefore it is important to
target health initiatives for indigenous people.

Objectives

6.23. The general objectives of protecting vulnerable groups are to ensure
that all such individuals should be allowed to develop to their full potential
(including healthy physical, mental and spiritual development); to ensure that
young people can develop, establish and maintain healthy lives; to allow women
to perform their key role in society; and to support indigenous people through
educational, economic and technical opportunities.

6.24. Specific major goals for child survival, development and protection
were agreed upon at the World Summit for Children and remain valid also for
Agenda 21. Supporting and sectoral goals cover women's health and education,
nutrition, child health, water and sanitation, basic education and children
in difficult circumstances.

6.25. Governments should take active steps to implement, as a matter of
urgency, in accordance with country specific conditions and legal systems,
measures to ensure that women and men have the same right to decide freely and
responsibly on the number and spacing of their children, to have access to the
information, education and means, as appropriate, to enable them to exercise
this right in keeping with their freedom, dignity and personally held values,
taking into account ethical and cultural considerations.

6.26. Governments should take active steps to implement programmes to
establish and strengthen preventive and curative health facilities which
include women-centred, women-managed, safe and effective reproductive health
care and affordable, accessible services, as appropriate, for the responsible
planning of family size, in keeping with freedom, dignity and personally held
values and taking into account ethical and cultural considerations.
Programmes should focus on providing comprehensive health care, including
pre-natal care, education and information on health and responsible parenthood
and should provide the opportunity for all women to breast-feed fully, at
least during the first four months post-partum. Programmes should fully
support women's productive and reproductive roles and well being, with special
attention to the need for providing equal and improved health care for all
children and the need to reduce the risk of maternal and child mortality and
sickness.

Activities

6.27. National Governments, in cooperation with local and non-governmental
organizations, should initiate or enhance programmes in the following areas:

(a) Infants and children:

(i) Strengthen basic health-care services for children in the context
of primary health-care delivery, including prenatal care,
breast-feeding, immunization and nutrition programmes;

(ii) Undertake widespread adult education on the use of oral rehydration
therapy for diarrhoea, treatment of respiratory infections and
prevention of communicable diseases;

(iii) Promote the creation, amendment and enforcement of a legal
framework protecting children from sexual and workplace
exploitation;

(iv) Protect children from the effects of environmental and occupational
toxic compounds;

(b) Youth:

Strengthen services for youth in health, education and social
sectors in order to provide better information, education,
counselling and treatment for specific health problems, including
drug abuse;

(c) Women:

(i) Involve women's groups in decision-making at the national and
community levels to identify health risks and incorporate health
issues in national action programmes on women and development;
(ii) Provide concrete incentives to encourage and maintain attendance of
women of all ages at school and adult education courses, including
health education and training in primary, home and maternal health
care;

(iii) Carry out baseline surveys and knowledge, attitude and practice
studies on the health and nutrition of women throughout their life
cycle, especially as related to the impact of environmental
degradation and adequate resources;

(d) Indigenous people and their communities:

(i) Strengthen, through resources and self-management, preventative and
curative health services;

(ii) Integrate traditional knowledge and experience into health systems.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

6.28. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$3.7 billion, including about $400 billion from the international community
on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

6.29. Educational, health and research institutions should be strengthened
to provide support to improve the health of vulnerable groups. Social
research on the specific problems of these groups should be expanded and
methods for implementing flexible pragmatic solutions explored, with emphasis
on preventive measures. Technical support should be provided to Governments,
institutions and non-governmental organizations for youth, women and
indigenous people in the health sector.

(c) Human resources development

6.30. The development of human resources for the health of children, youth
and women should include reinforcement of educational institutions, promotion
of interactive methods of education for health and increased use of mass media
in disseminating information to the target groups. This requires the training
of more community health workers, nurses, midwives, physicians, social
scientists and educators, the education of mothers, families and communities
and the strengthening of ministries of education, health, population etc.

(d) Capacity-building

6.31. Governments should promote, where necessary: (i) the organization of
national, intercountry and interregional symposia and other meetings for the
exchange of information among agencies and groups concerned with the health
of children, youth, women and indigenous people, and (ii) women's
organizations, youth groups and indigenous people's organizations to
facilitate health and consult them on the creation, amendment and enforcement
of legal frameworks to ensure a healthy environment for children, youth, women
and indigenous peoples.

D. Meeting the urban health challenge

Basis for action

6.32. For hundreds of millions of people, the poor living conditions in urban
and peri-urban areas are destroying lives, health, and social and moral
values. Urban growth has outstripped society's capacity to meet human needs,
leaving hundreds of millions of people with inadequate incomes, diets, housing
and services. Urban growth exposes populations to serious environmental
hazards and has outstripped the capacity of municipal and local governments
to provide the environmental health services that the people need. All too
often, urban development is associated with destructive effects on the
physical environment and the resource base needed for sustainable development.
Environmental pollution in urban areas is associated with excess morbidity and
mortality. Overcrowding and inadequate housing contribute to respiratory
diseases, tuberculosis, meningitis and other diseases. In urban environments,
many factors that affect human health are outside the health sector.
Improvements in urban health therefore will depend on coordinated action by
all levels of government, health care providers, businesses, religious groups,
social and educational institutions and citizens.

Objectives

6.33. The health and well-being of all urban dwellers must be improved so
that they can contribute to economic and social development. The global
objective is to achieve a 10 to 40 per cent improvement in health indicators
by the year 2000. The same rate of improvement should be achieved for
environmental, housing and health service indicators. These include the
development of quantitative objectives for infant mortality, maternal
mortality, percentage of low birth weight newborns and specific indicators
(e.g. tuberculosis as an indicator of crowded housing, diarrhoeal diseases as
indicators of inadequate water and sanitation, rates of industrial and
transportation accidents that indicate possible opportunities for prevention
of injury, and social problems such as drug abuse, violence and crime that
indicate underlying social disorders).

Activities

6.34. Local authorities, with the appropriate support of national Governments
and international organizations should be encouraged to take effective
measures to initiate or strengthen the following activities:

(a) Develop and implement municipal and local health plans:

(i) Establish or strengthen intersectoral committees at both the
political and technical level, including active collaboration on
linkages with scientific, cultural, religious, medical, business,
social and other city institutions, using networking arrangements;

(ii) Adopt or strengthen municipal or local "enabling strategies" that
emphasize "doing with" rather than "doing for" and create
supportive environments for health;

(iii) Ensure that public health education in schools, workplace, mass
media etc. is provided or strengthened;

(iv) Encourage communities to develop personal skills and awareness of
primary health care;

(v) Promote and strengthen community-based rehabilitation activities
for the urban and peri-urban disabled and the elderly;

(b) Survey, where necessary, the existing health, social and
environmental conditions in cities, including documentation of
intra-urban differences;

(c) Strengthen environmental health services:

(i) Adopt health impact and environmental impact assessment procedures;

(ii) Provide basic and in-service training for new and existing
personnel;

(d) Establish and maintain city networks for collaboration and exchange
of models of good practice.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

6.35. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$222 million, including about $22 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

6.36. Decision-making models should be further developed and more widely used
to assess the costs and the health and environment impacts of alternative
technologies and strategies. Improvement in urban development and management
requires better national and municipal statistics based on practical,
standardized indicators. Development of methods is a priority for the
measurement of intra-urban and intra-district variations in health status and
environmental conditions, and for the application of this information in
planning and management.

(c) Human resources development

6.37. Programmes must supply the orientation and basic training of municipal
staff required for the healthy city processes. Basic and in-service training
of environmental health personnel will also be needed.

(d) Capacity-building

6.38. The programme is aimed towards improved planning and management
capabilities in the municipal and local government and its partners in central
Government, the private sector and universities. Capacity development should
be focused on obtaining sufficient information, improving coordination
mechanisms linking all the key actors, and making better use of available
instruments and resources for implementation.

E. Reducing health risks from environmental pollution
and hazards

Basis for action

6.39. In many locations around the world the general environment (air, water
and land), workplaces and even individual dwellings are so badly polluted that
the health of hundreds of millions of people is adversely affected. This is,
inter alia, due to past and present developments in consumption and production
patterns and lifestyles, in energy production and use, in industry, in
transportation etc., with little or no regard for environmental protection.
There have been notable improvements in some countries, but deterioration of
the environment continues. The ability of countries to tackle pollution and
health problems is greatly restrained because of lack of resources. Pollution
control and health protection measures have often not kept pace with economic
development. Considerable development-related environmental health hazards
exist in the newly industrializing countries. Furthermore, the recent
analysis of WHO has clearly established the interdependence among the factors
of health, environment and development and has revealed that most countries
are lacking such integration as would lead to an effective pollution control
mechanism. 2/ Without prejudice to such criteria as may be agreed upon by the
international community, or to standards which will have to be determined
nationally, it will be essential in all cases to consider the systems of
values prevailing in each country and the extent of the applicability of
standards that are valid for the most advanced countries but may be
inappropriate and of unwarranted social cost for the developing countries.

Objectives

6.40. The overall objective is to minimize hazards and maintain the
environment to a degree that human health and safety is not impaired or
endangered and yet encourage development to proceed. Specific programme
objectives are:

(a) By the year 2000, to incorporate appropriate environmental and
health safeguards as part of national development programmes in all countries;

(b) By the year 2000, to establish, as appropriate, adequate national
infrastructure and programmes for providing environmental injury, hazard
surveillance and the basis for abatement in all countries;

(c) By the year 2000, to establish, as appropriate, integrated
programmes for tackling pollution at the source and at the disposal site, with
a focus on abatement actions in all countries;

(d) To identify and compile, as appropriate, the necessary statistical
information on health effects to support cost/benefit analysis, including
environmental health impact assessment for pollution control, prevention and
abatement measures.

Activities

6.41. Nationally determined action programmes, with international assistance,
support and coordination, where necessary, in this area should include:

(a) Urban air pollution:

(i) Develop appropriate pollution control technology on the basis of
risk assessment and epidemiological research for the introduction
of environmentally sound production processes and suitable safe
mass transport;

(ii) Develop air pollution control capacities in large cities,
emphasizing enforcement programmes and using monitoring networks,
as appropriate;

(b) Indoor air pollution:

(i) Support research and develop programmes for applying prevention and
control methods to reducing indoor air pollution, including the
provision of economic incentives for the installation of
appropriate technology;

(ii) Develop and implement health education campaigns, particularly in
developing countries, to reduce the health impact of domestic use
of biomass and coal;

(c) Water pollution:

(i) Develop appropriate water pollution control technologies on the
basis of health risk assessment;

(ii) Develop water pollution control capacities in large cities;

(d) Pesticides:

Develop mechanisms to control the distribution and use of
pesticides in order to minimize the risks to human health by
transportation, storage, application and residual effects of
pesticides used in agriculture and preservation of wood;

(e) Solid waste:

(i) Develop appropriate solid waste disposal technologies on the basis
of health risk assessment;
(ii) Develop appropriate solid waste disposal capacities in large
cities;

(f) Human settlements:

Develop programmes for improving health conditions in human
settlements, in particular within slums and non-tenured
settlements, on the basis of health risk assessment;

(g) Noise:

Develop criteria for maximum permitted safe noise exposure levels
and promote noise assessment and control as part of environmental
health programmes;

(h) Ionizing and non-ionizing radiation:

Develop and implement appropriate national legislation, standards
and enforcement procedures on the basis of existing international
guidelines;

(i) Effects of ultraviolet radiation:

Undertake, as a matter of urgency, research on the effects on human
health of the increasing ultraviolet radiation reaching the earth's
surface as a consequence of depletion of the stratospheric ozone
layer;

(ii) On the basis of the outcome of this research, consider taking
appropriate remedial measures to mitigate the above-mentioned
effects on human beings;

(j) Industry and energy production:

(i) Establish environmental health impact assessment procedures for the
planning and development of new industries and energy facilities;

(ii) Incorporate appropriate health risk analysis in all national
programmes for pollution control and management, with particular
emphasis on toxic compounds such as lead;

(iii) Establish industrial hygiene programmes in all major industries for
the surveillance of workers' exposure to health hazards;

(iv) Promote the introduction of environmentally sound technologies
within the industry and energy sectors;

(k) Monitoring and assessment:

Establish, as appropriate, adequate environmental monitoring
capacities for the surveillance of environmental quality and the
health status of populations;

(l) Injury monitoring and reduction:

(i) Support, as appropriate, the development of systems to monitor the
incidence and cause of injury to allow well-targeted
intervention/prevention strategies;

(ii) Develop, in accordance with national plans, strategies in all
sectors (industry, traffic and others) consistent with the WHO safe
cities and safe communities programmes, to reduce the frequency and
severity of injury;

(iii) Emphasize preventive strategies to reduce occupationally derived
diseases and diseases caused by environmental and occupational
toxins to enhance worker safety;

(m) Research promotion and methodology development:
(i) Support the development of new methods for the quantitative
assessment of health benefits and cost associated with different
pollution control strategies;

(ii) Develop and carry out interdisciplinary research on the combined
health effects of exposure to multiple environmental hazards,
including epidemiological investigations of long-term exposures to
low levels of pollutants and the use of biological markers capable
of estimating human exposures, adverse effects and susceptibility
to environmental agents.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

6.42. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$3 billion, including about $115 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

6.43. Although technology to prevent or abate pollution is readily available
for a large number of problems, for programme and policy development countries
should undertake research within an intersectoral framework. Such efforts
should include collaboration with the business sector. Cost/effect analysis
and environmental impact assessment methods should be developed through
cooperative international programmes and applied to the setting of priorities
and strategies in relation to health and development.

6.44. In the activities listed in paragraph 6.41 (a) to (m) above, developing
country efforts should be facilitated by access to and transfer of technology,
know-how and information, from the repositories of such knowledge and
technologies, in conformity with chapter 34.

(c) Human resource development

6.45. Comprehensive national strategies should be designed to overcome the
lack of qualified human resources, which is a major impediment to progress in
dealing with environmental health hazards. Training should include
environmental and health officials at all levels from managers to inspectors.
More emphasis needs to be placed on including the subject of environmental
health in the curricula of secondary schools and universities and on educating
the public.

(d) Capacity-building

6.46. Each country should develop the knowledge and practical skills to
foresee and identify environmental health hazards, and the capacity to reduce
the risks. Basic capacity requirements must include knowledge about
environmental health problems and awareness on the part of leaders, citizens
and specialists; operational mechanisms for intersectoral and
intergovernmental cooperation in development planning and management and in
combating pollution; arrangements for involving private and community
interests in dealing with social issues; delegation of authority and
distribution of resources to intermediate and local levels of government to
provide front-line capabilities to meet environmental health needs.

Notes

1/ A/45/625, annex.

2/ Report of the WHO Commission on Health and Environment (Geneva,
forthcoming).

END OF CHAPTER 6

Chapter 7

PROMOTING SUSTAINABLE HUMAN SETTLEMENT DEVELOPMENT

INTRODUCTION

7.1. In industrialized countries, the consumption patterns of cities are
severely stressing the global ecosystem, while settlements in the developing
world need more raw material, energy, and economic development simply to
overcome basic economic and social problems. Human settlement conditions in
many parts of the world, particularly the developing countries, are
deteriorating mainly as a result of the low levels of investment in the sector
attributable to the overall resource constraints in these countries. In the
low-income countries for which recent data are available, an average of only
5.6 per cent of central government expenditure went to housing, amenities,
social security and welfare. 1/ Expenditure by international support and
finance organizations is equally low. For example, only 1 per cent of the
United Nations system's total grant-financed expenditures in 1988 went to
human settlements, 2/ while in 1991, loans from the World Bank and the
International Development Association (IDA) for urban development and water
supply and sewerage amounted to 5.5 and 5.4 per cent, respectively, of their
total lending. 3/

7.2. On the other hand, available information indicates that technical
cooperation activities in the human settlement sector generate considerable
public and private sector investment. For example, every dollar of UNDP
technical cooperation expenditure on human settlements in 1988 generated a
follow-up investment of $122, the highest of all UNDP sectors of
assistance. 4/

7.3. This is the foundation of the "enabling approach" advocated for the
human settlement sector. External assistance will help to generate the
internal resources needed to improve the living and working environments of
all people by the year 2000 and beyond, including the growing number of
unemployed - the no-income group. At the same time the environmental
implications of urban development should be recognized and addressed in an
integrated fashion by all countries, with high priority being given to the
needs of the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the growing number of
people without any source of income.

Human settlement objective

cont'd

7.4. The overall human settlement objective is to improve the social,
economic and environmental quality of human settlements and the living and
working environments of all people, in particular the urban and rural poor.
Such improvement should be based on technical cooperation activities,
partnerships among the public, private and community sectors and participation
in the decision-making process by community groups and special interest groups
such as women, indigenous people, the elderly and the disabled. These
approaches should form the core principles of national settlement strategies.
In developing these strategies, countries will need to set priorities among
the eight programme areas in this chapter in accordance with their national
plans and objectives, taking fully into account their social and cultural
capabilities. Furthermore, countries should make appropriate provision to
monitor the impact of their strategies on marginalized and disenfranchised
groups, with particular reference to the needs of women.

7.5. The programme areas included in this chapter are:

(a) Providing adequate shelter for all;

(b) Improving human settlement management;

(c) Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management;

(d) Promoting the integrated provision of environmental infrastructure:
water, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste management;

(e) Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in human
settlements;

(f) Promoting human settlement planning and management in disaster-prone
areas;

(g) Promoting sustainable construction industry activities;

(h) Promoting human resource development and capacity-building for human
settlement development.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Providing adequate shelter for all

Basis for action

7.6. Access to safe and healthy shelter is essential to a person's physical,
psychological, social and economic well-being and should be a fundamental part
of national and international action. The right to adequate housing as a
basic human right is enshrined in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights
and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights.
Despite this, it is estimated that at the present time, at least 1 billion
people do not have access to safe and healthy shelter and that if appropriate
action is not taken, this number will increase dramatically by the end of the
century and beyond.

7.7. A major global programme to address this problem is the Global Strategy
for Shelter to the Year 2000, adopted by the General Assembly in December 1988
(resolution 43/181, annex). Despite its widespread endorsement, the Strategy
needs a much greater level of political and financial support to enable it to
reach its goal of facilitating adequate shelter for all by the end of the
century and beyond.

Objective

7.8. The objective is to achieve adequate shelter for rapidly growing
populations and for the currently deprived urban and rural poor through an
enabling approach to shelter development and improvement that is
environmentally sound.

Activities

7.9. The following activities should be undertaken:

(a) As a first step towards the goal of providing adequate shelter for
all, all countries should take immediate measures to provide shelter to their
homeless poor, while the international community and financial institutions
should undertake actions to support the efforts of the developing countries
to provide shelter to the poor;

(b) All countries should adopt and/or strengthen national shelter
strategies, with targets based, as appropriate, on the principles and
recommendations contained in the Global Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000.
People should be protected by law against unfair eviction from their homes or
land;

(c) All countries should, as appropriate, support the shelter efforts
of the urban and rural poor, the unemployed and the no-income group by
adopting and/or adapting existing codes and regulations, to facilitate their
access to land, finance and low-cost building materials and by actively
promoting the regularization and upgrading of informal settlements and urban
slums as an expedient measure and pragmatic solution to the urban shelter
deficit;

(d) All countries should, as appropriate, facilitate access of urban and
rural poor to shelter by adopting and utilizing housing and finance schemes
and new innovative mechanisms adapted to their circumstances;

(e) All countries should support and develop environmentally compatible
shelter strategies at national, state/provincial and municipal levels through
partnerships among the private, public and community sectors and with the
support of community-based organizations;

(f) All countries, especially developing ones, should, as appropriate,
formulate and implement programmes to reduce the impact of the phenomenon of
rural to urban drift by improving rural living conditions;

(g) All countries, where appropriate, should develop and implement
resettlement programmes that address the specific problems of displaced
populations in their respective countries;

(h) All countries should, as appropriate, document and monitor the
implementation of their national shelter strategies by using, inter alia, the
monitoring guidelines adopted by the Commission on Human Settlements and the
shelter performance indicators being produced jointly by the United Nations
Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) and the World Bank;

(i) Bilateral and multilateral cooperation should be strengthened in
order to support the implementation of the national shelter strategies of
developing countries;

(j) Global progress reports covering national action and the support
activities of international organizations and bilateral donors should be
produced and disseminated on a biennial basis, as requested in the Global
Strategy for Shelter to the Year 2000.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.10. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$75 billion, including about $10 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.11. The requirements under this heading are addressed in each of the other
programme areas included in the present chapter.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.12. Developed countries and funding agencies should provide specific
assistance to developing countries in adopting an enabling approach to the
provision of shelter for all, including the no-income group, and covering
research institutions and training activities for government officials,
professionals, communities and non-governmental organizations and by
strengthening local capacity for the development of appropriate technologies.

B. Improving human settlement management

Basis for action

7.13. By the turn of the century, the majority of the world's population will
be living in cities. While urban settlements, particularly in developing
countries, are showing many of the symptoms of the global environment and
development crisis, they nevertheless generate 60 per cent of gross national
product and, if properly managed, can develop the capacity to sustain their
productivity, improve the living conditions of their residents and manage
natural resources in a sustainable way.

7.14. Some metropolitan areas extend over the boundaries of several political
and/or administrative entities (counties and municipalities) even though they
conform to a continuous urban system. In many cases this political
heterogeneity hinders the implementation of comprehensive environmental
management programmes.

Objective

7.15. The objective is to ensure sustainable management of all urban
settlements, particularly in developing countries, in order to enhance their
ability to improve the living conditions of residents, especially the
marginalized and disenfranchised, thereby contributing to the achievement of
national economic development goals.

Activities

(a) Improving urban management

cont'd

7.16. One existing framework for strengthening management is in the United
Nations Development Programme/World Bank/United Nations Centre for Human
Settlements (Habitat) Urban Management Programme (UMP), a concerted global
effort to assist developing countries in addressing urban management issues.
Its coverage should be extended to all interested countries during the period
1993-2000. All countries should, as appropriate and in accordance with
national plans, objectives and priorities and with the assistance of
non-governmental organizations and representatives of local authorities,
undertake the following activities at the national, state/provincial and local
levels, with the assistance of relevant programmes and support agencies:

(a) Adopting and applying urban management guidelines in the areas of
land management, urban environmental management, infrastructure management and
municipal finance and administration;

(b) Accelerating efforts to reduce urban poverty through a number of
actions, including:

(i) Generating employment for the urban poor, particularly women,
through the provision, improvement and maintenance of urban
infrastructure and services and the support of economic activities
in the informal sector, such as repairs, recycling, services and
small commerce;

(ii) Providing specific assistance to the poorest of the urban poor
through, inter alia, the creation of social infrastructure in order
to reduce hunger and homelessness, and the provision of adequate
community services;

(iii) Encouraging the establishment of indigenous community-based
organizations, private voluntary organizations and other forms of
non-governmental entities that can contribute to the efforts to
reduce poverty and improve the quality of life for low-income
families;

(c) Adopting innovative city planning strategies to address
environmental and social issues by:

(i) Reducing subsidies on, and recovering the full costs of,
environmental and other services of high standard (e.g. water
supply, sanitation, waste collection, roads, telecommunications)
provided to higher income neighbourhoods;

(ii) Improving the level of infrastructure and service provision in
poorer urban areas;

(d) Developing local strategies for improving the quality of life and
the environment, integrating decisions on land use and land management,
investing in the public and private sectors and mobilizing human and material
resources, thereby promoting employment generation that is environmentally
sound and protective of human health.

(b) Strengthening urban data systems

7.17. During the period 1993-2000 all countries should undertake, with the
active participation of the business sector as appropriate, pilot projects in
selected cities for the collection, analysis and subsequent dissemination of
urban data, including environmental impact analysis, at the local,
state/provincial, national and international levels and the establishment of
city data management capabilities. 5/ United Nations organizations, such as
Habitat, UNEP and UNDP, could provide technical advice and model data
management systems.

(c) Encouraging intermediate city development

7.18. In order to relieve pressure on large urban agglomerations of
developing countries, policies and strategies should be implemented towards
the development of intermediate cities that create employment opportunities
for unemployed labour in the rural areas and support rural-based economic
activities, although sound urban management is essential to ensure that urban
sprawl does not expand resource degradation over an ever wider land area and
increase pressures to convert open space and agricultural/buffer lands for
development.

7.19. Therefore all countries should, as appropriate, conduct reviews of
urbanization processes and policies in order to assess the environmental
impacts of growth and apply urban planning and management approaches
specifically suited to the needs, resource capabilities and characteristics
of their growing intermediate-sized cities. As appropriate, they should also
concentrate on activities aimed at facilitating the transition from rural to
urban lifestyles and settlement patterns and at promoting the development of
small-scale economic activities, particularly the production of food, to
support local income generation and the production of intermediate goods and
services for rural hinterlands.

7.20. All cities, particularly those characterized by severe sustainable
development problems, should, in accordance with national laws, rules and
regulations, develop and strengthen programmes aimed at addressing such
problems and guiding their development along a sustainable path. Some
international initiatives in support of such efforts, as in the Sustainable
Cities Programme of Habitat and the Healthy Cities Programme of WHO, should
be intensified. Additional initiatives involving the World Bank, the regional
development banks and bilateral agencies, as well as other interested
stakeholders, particularly international and national representatives of local
authorities, should be strengthened and coordinated. Individual cities
should, as appropriate:

(a) Institutionalize a participatory approach to sustainable urban
development, based on a continuous dialogue between the actors involved in
urban development (the public sector, private sector and communities),
especially women and indigenous people;

(b) Improve the urban environment by promoting social organization and
environmental awareness through the participation of local communities in the
identification of public services needs, the provision of urban
infrastructure, the enhancement of public amenities and the protection and/or
rehabilitation of older buildings, historic precincts and other cultural
artifacts. In addition, "green works" programmes should be activated to
create self-sustaining human development activities and both formal and
informal employment opportunities for low-income urban residents;

(c) Strengthen the capacities of their local governing bodies to deal
more effectively with the broad range of developmental and environmental
challenges associated with rapid and sound urban growth through comprehensive
approaches to planning that recognize the individual needs of cities and are
based on ecologically sound urban design practices;

(d) Participate in international "sustainable city networks" to exchange
experiences and mobilize national and international technical and financial
support;

(e) Promote the formulation of environmentally sound and culturally
sensitive tourism programmes as a strategy for sustainable development of
urban and rural settlements and as a way of decentralizing urban development
and reducing discrepancies among regions;

(f) Establish mechanisms, with the assistance of relevant international
agencies, to mobilize resources for local initiatives to improve environmental
quality;

(g) Empower community groups, non-governmental organizations and
individuals to assume the authority and responsibility for managing and
enhancing their immediate environment through participatory tools, techniques
and approaches embodied in the concept of environmental care.

7.21. Cities of all countries should reinforce cooperation among themselves
and cities of the developed countries, under the aegis of non-governmental
organizations active in this field, such as the International Union of Local
Authorities (IULA), the International Council for Local Environmental
Initiatives (ICLEI) and the World Federation of Twin Cities.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.22. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$100 billion, including about $15 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.23. Developing countries should, with appropriate international assistance,
consider focusing on training and developing a cadre of urban managers,
technicians, administrators and other relevant stakeholders who can
successfully manage environmentally sound urban development and growth and are
equipped with the skills necessary to analyse and adapt the innovative
experiences of other cities. For this purpose, the full range of training
methods - from formal education to the use of the mass media - should be
utilized, as well as the "learning by doing" option.
7.24. Developing countries should also encourage technological training and
research through joint efforts by donors, non-governmental organizations and
private business in such areas as the reduction of waste, water quality,
saving of energy, safe production of chemicals and less polluting
transportation.

cont'd

7.25. Capacity-building activities carried out by all countries, assisted as
suggested above, should go beyond the training of individuals and functional
groups to include institutional arrangements, administrative routines,
inter-agency linkages, information flows and consultative processes.

7.26. In addition, international efforts, such as the Urban Management
Programme, in cooperation with multilateral and bilateral agencies, should
continue to assist the developing countries in their efforts to develop a
participatory structure by mobilizing the human resources of the private
sector, non-governmental organizations and the poor, particularly women and
the disadvantaged.

C. Promoting sustainable land-use planning and management

Basis for action

7.27. Access to land resources is an essential component of sustainable
low-impact lifestyles. Land resources are the basis for (human) living
systems and provide soil, energy, water and the opportunity for all human
activity. In rapidly growing urban areas, access to land is rendered
increasingly difficult by the conflicting demands of industry, housing,
commerce, agriculture, land tenure structures and the need for open spaces.
Furthermore, the rising costs of urban land prevent the poor from gaining
access to suitable land. In rural areas, unsustainable practices, such as the
exploitation of marginal lands and the encroachment on forests and
ecologically fragile areas by commercial interests and landless rural
populations, result in environmental degradation, as well as in diminishing
returns for impoverished rural settlers.

Objective

7.28. The objective is to provide for the land requirements of human
settlement development through environmentally sound physical planning and
land use so as to ensure access to land to all households and, where
appropriate, the encouragement of communally and collectively owned and
managed land. 6/ Particular attention should be paid to the needs of women
and indigenous people for economic and cultural reasons.

Activities

7.29. All countries should consider, as appropriate, undertaking a
comprehensive national inventory of their land resources in order to establish
a land information system in which land resources will be classified according
to their most appropriate uses and environmentally fragile or disaster-prone
areas will be identified for special protection measures.

7.30. Subsequently, all countries should consider developing national
land-resource management plans to guide land-resource development and
utilization and, to that end, should:

(a) Establish, as appropriate, national legislation to guide the
implementation of public policies for environmentally sound urban development,
land utilization, housing and for the improved management of urban expansion;

(b) Create, where appropriate, efficient and accessible land markets
that meet community development needs by, inter alia, improving land registry
systems and streamlining procedures in land transactions;

(c) Develop fiscal incentives and land-use control measures, including
land-use planning solutions for a more rational and environmentally sound use
of limited land resources;

(d) Encourage partnerships among the public, private and community
sectors in managing land resources for human settlements development;

(e) Strengthen community-based land-resource protection practices in
existing urban and rural settlements;

(f) Establish appropriate forms of land tenure that provide security of
tenure for all land-users, especially indigenous people, women, local
communities, the low-income urban dwellers and the rural poor;

(g) Accelerate efforts to promote access to land by the urban and rural
poor, including credit schemes for the purchase of land and for
building/acquiring or improving safe and healthy shelter and infrastructure
services;

(h) Develop and support the implementation of improved land-management
practices that deal comprehensively with potentially competing land
requirements for agriculture, industry, transport, urban development, green
spaces, preserves and other vital needs;

(i) Promote understanding among policy makers of the adverse
consequences of unplanned settlements in environmentally vulnerable areas and
of the appropriate national and local land-use and settlements policies
required for this purpose.

7.31. At the international level, global coordination of land-resource
management activities should be strengthened by the various bilateral and
multilateral agencies and programmes, such as UNDP, FAO, the World Bank, the
regional development banks, other interested organizations and the UNDP/World
Bank/Habitat Urban Management Programme, and action should be taken to promote
the transfer of applicable experience on sustainable land-management practices
to and among developing countries.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

cont'd

7.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$3 billion, including about $300 million from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.33. All countries, particularly developing countries, alone or in regional
or subregional groupings, should be given access to modern techniques of
land-resource management, such as geographical information systems, satellite
photography/imagery and other remote-sensing technologies.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.34. Environmentally focused training activities in sustainable
land-resources planning and management should be undertaken in all countries,
with developing countries being given assistance through international support
and funding agencies in order to:

(a) Strengthen the capacity of national, state/provincial and local
educational research and training institutions to provide formal training of
land-management technicians and professionals;

(b) Facilitate the organizational review of government ministries and
agencies responsible for land questions, in order to devise more efficient
mechanisms of land-resource management, and carry out periodic in-service
refresher courses for the managers and staff of such ministries and agencies
in order to familiarize them with up-to-date land-resource-management
technologies;

(c) Where appropriate, provide such agencies with modern equipment, such
as computer hardware and software and survey equipment;

(d) Strengthen existing programmes and promote an international and
interregional exchange of information and experience in land management
through the establishment of professional associations in land-management
sciences and related activities, such as workshops and seminars.

D. Promoting the integrated provision of environmental
infrastructure: water, sanitation, drainage and
solid-waste management

Basis for action

7.35. The sustainability of urban development is defined by many parameters
relating to the availability of water supplies, air quality and the provision
of environmental infrastructure for sanitation and waste management. As a
result of the density of users, urbanization, if properly managed, offers
unique opportunities for the supply of sustainable environmental
infrastructure through adequate pricing policies, educational programmes and
equitable access mechanisms that are economically and environmentally sound.
In most developing countries, however, the inadequacy and lack of
environmental infrastructure is responsible for widespread ill-health and a
large number of preventable deaths each year. In those countries conditions
are set to worsen due to growing needs that exceed the capacity of Governments
to respond adequately.

7.36. An integrated approach to the provision of environmentally sound
infrastructure in human settlements, in particular for the urban and rural
poor, is an investment in sustainable development that can improve the quality
of life, increase productivity, improve health and reduce the burden of
investments in curative medicine and poverty alleviation.

7.37. Most of the activities whose management would be improved by an
integrated approach, are covered in Agenda 21 as follows: chapter 6
(Protecting and promoting human health conditions), chapters 9 (Protecting the
atmosphere), 18 (Protecting the quality and supply of freshwater resources)
and 21 (Environmentally sound management of solid wastes and sewage-related
issues).

Objective

7.38. The objective is to ensure the provision of adequate environmental
infrastructure facilities in all settlements by the year 2025. The
achievement of this objective would require that all developing countries
incorporate in their national strategies programmes to build the necessary
technical, financial and human resource capacity aimed at ensuring better
integration of infrastructure and environmental planning by the year 2000.

Activities

7.39. All countries should assess the environmental suitability of
infrastructure in human settlements, develop national goals for sustainable
management of waste, and implement environmentally sound technology to ensure
that the environment, human health and quality of life are protected.
Settlement infrastructure and environmental programmes designed to promote an
integrated human settlements approach to the planning, development,
maintenance and management of environmental infrastructure (water supply,
sanitation, drainage, solid-waste management) should be strengthened with the
assistance of bilateral and multilateral agencies. Coordination among these
agencies and with collaboration from international and national
representatives of local authorities, the private sector and community groups
should also be strengthened. The activities of all agencies engaged in
providing environmental infrastructure should, where possible, reflect an
ecosystem or metropolitan area approach to settlements and should include
monitoring, applied research, capacity-building, transfer of appropriate
technology and technical cooperation among the range of programme activities.

7.40. Developing countries should be assisted at the national and local
levels in adopting an integrated approach to the provision of water supply,
energy, sanitation, drainage and solid-waste management, and external funding
agencies should ensure that this approach is applied in particular to
environmental infrastructure improvement in informal settlements based on
regulations and standards that take into account the living conditions and
resources of the communities to be served.

7.41. All countries should, as appropriate, adopt the following principles
for the provision of environmental infrastructure:

(a) Adopt policies that minimize if not altogether avoid environmental
damage, whenever possible;

(b) Ensure that relevant decisions are preceded by environmental impact
assessments and also take into account the costs of any ecological
consequences;

(c) Promote development in accordance with indigenous practices and
adopt technologies appropriate to local conditions;

(d) Promote policies aimed at recovering the actual cost of
infrastructure services, while at the same time recognizing the need to find
suitable approaches (including subsidies) to extend basic services to all
households;

(e) Seek joint solutions to environmental problems that affect several
localities.

7.42. The dissemination of information from existing programmes should be
facilitated and encouraged among interested countries and local institutions.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

cont'd

7.43. The Conference secretariat has estimated most of the costs of
implementing the activities of this programme in other chapters. The
secretariat estimates the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of technical
assistance from the international community grant or concessional terms to be
about $50 million. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only
and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms,
including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the
specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.44. Scientific and technological means within the existing programmes
should be coordinated wherever possible and should:

(a) Accelerate research in the area of integrated policies of
environmental infrastructure programmes and projects based on cost/benefit
analysis and overall environmental impact;

(b) Promote methods of assessing "effective demand", utilizing
environment and development data as criteria for selecting technology.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.45. With the assistance and support of funding agencies, all countries
should, as appropriate, undertake training and popular participation
programmes aimed at:

(a) Raising awareness of the means, approaches and benefits of the
provision of environmental infrastructure facilities, especially among
indigenous people, women, low-income groups and the poor;
(b) Developing a cadre of professionals with adequate skills in
integrated infrastructural service planning and maintenance of
resource-efficient, environmentally sound and socially acceptable systems;

(c) Strengthening the institutional capacity of local authorities and
administrators in the integrated provision of adequate infrastructure services
in partnership with local communities and the private sector;

(d) Adopting appropriate legal and regulatory instruments, including
cross-subsidy arrangements, to extend the benefits of adequate and affordable
environmental infrastructure to unserved population groups, especially the
poor.

E. Promoting sustainable energy and transport systems in
human settlements

Basis for action

7.46. Most of the commercial and non-commercial energy produced today is used
in and for human settlements, and a substantial percentage of it is used by
the household sector. Developing countries are at present faced with the need
to increase their energy production to accelerate development and raise the
living standards of their populations, while at the same time reducing energy
production costs and energy-related pollution. Increasing the efficiency of
energy use to reduce its polluting effects and to promote the use of renewable
energies must be a priority in any action taken to protect the urban
environment.

7.47. Developed countries, as the largest consumers of energy, are faced with
the need for energy planning and management, promoting renewable and alternate
sources of energy, and evaluating the life-cycle costs of current systems and
practices as a result of which many metropolitan areas are suffering from
pervasive air quality problems related to ozone, particulate matters and
carbon monoxide. The causes have much to do with technological inadequacies
and with an increasing fuel consumption generated by inefficiencies, high
demographic and industrial concentrations and a rapid expansion in the number
of motor vehicles.

7.48. Transport accounts for about 30 per cent of commercial energy
consumption and for about 60 per cent of total global consumption of liquid
petroleum. In developing countries, rapid motorization and insufficient
investments in urban-transport planning, traffic management and
infrastructure, are creating increasing problems in terms of accidents and
injury, health, noise, congestion and loss of productivity similar to those
occurring in many developed countries. All of these problems have a severe
impact on urban populations, particularly the low-income and no-income groups.

Objectives

7.49. The objectives are to extend the provision of more energy-efficient
technology and alternative/renewable energy for human settlements and to
reduce negative impacts of energy production and use on human health and on
the environment.

Activities

7.50. The principal activities relevant to this programme area are included
in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere), programme area B, subprogramme 1
(Energy development, efficiency and consumption) and subprogramme 2
(Transportation).

7.51. A comprehensive approach to human settlements development should
include the promotion of sustainable energy development in all countries, as
follows:

(a) Developing countries, in particular, should:

(i) Formulate national action programmes to promote and support
reafforestation and national forest regeneration with a view to
achieving sustained provision of the biomass energy needs of the
low-income groups in urban areas and the rural poor, in particular
women and children;

(ii) Formulate national action programmes to promote integrated
development of energy-saving and renewable energy technologies,
particularly for the use of solar, hydro, wind and biomass sources;

(iii) Promote wide dissemination and commercialization of renewable
energy technologies through suitable measures, inter alia, fiscal
and technology transfer mechanisms;

(iv) Carry out information and training programmes directed at
manufacturers and users in order to promote energy-saving
techniques and energy-efficient appliances;

(b) International organizations and bilateral donors should:

(i) Support developing countries in implementing national energy
programmes in order to achieve widespread use of energy-saving and
renewable energy technologies, particularly the use of solar, wind,
biomass and hydro sources;

(ii) Provide access to research and development results to increase
energy-use efficiency levels in human settlements.

cont'd

7.52. Promoting efficient and environmentally sound urban transport systems
in all countries should be a comprehensive approach to urban-transport
planning and management. To this end, all countries should:

(a) Integrate land-use and transportation planning to encourage
development patterns that reduce transport demand;

(b) Adopt urban-transport programmes favouring high-occupancy public
transport in countries, as appropriate;

(c) Encourage non-motorized modes of transport by providing safe
cycleways and footways in urban and suburban centres in countries, as
appropriate;

(d) Devote particular attention to effective traffic management,
efficient operation of public transport and maintenance of transport
infrastructure;

(e) Promote the exchange of information among countries and
representatives of local and metropolitan areas;

(f) Re-evaluate the present consumption and production patterns in order
to reduce the use of energy and national resources.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.53. The Conference secretariat has estimated the costs of implementing the
activities of this programme in chapter 9 (Protection of the atmosphere).

(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.54. In order to enhance the skills of energy service and transport
professionals and institutions, all countries should, as appropriate:

(a) Provide on-the-job and other training of government officials,
planners, traffic engineers and managers involved in the energy-service and
transport section;

(b) Raise public awareness of the environmental impacts of transport and
travel behaviour through mass media campaigns and support for non-governmental
and community initiatives promoting the use of non-motorized transport, shared
driving and improved traffic safety measures;

(c) Strengthen regional, national, state/provincial, and private sector
institutions that provide education and training on energy service and urban
transport planning and management.

F. Promoting human settlement planning and management in
disaster-prone areas

Basis for action

7.55. Natural disasters cause loss of life, disruption of economic activities
and urban productivity, particularly for highly susceptible low-income groups,
and environmental damage, such as loss of fertile agricultural land and
contamination of water resources, and can lead to major resettlement of
populations. Over the past two decades, they are estimated to have caused
some 3 million deaths and affected 800 million people. Global economic losses
have been estimated by the Office of the United Nations Disaster Relief
Coordinator to be in the range of $30-50 billion per year.

7.56. The General Assembly, in resolution 44/236, proclaimed the 1990s as the
International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. The goals of the
Decade 7/ bear relevance to the objectives of the present programme area.

7.57. In addition, there is an urgent need to address the prevention and
reduction of man-made disasters and/or disasters caused by, inter alia,
industries, unsafe nuclear power generation and toxic wastes (see chapter 6
of Agenda 21).

Objective

7.58. The objective is to enable all countries, in particular those that are
disaster-prone, to mitigate the negative impact of natural and man-made
disasters on human settlements, national economies and the environment.

Activities

7.59. Three distinct areas of activity are foreseen under this programme
area, namely, the development of a "culture of safety", pre-disaster planning
and post-disaster reconstruction.

(a) Developing a culture of safety

7.60. To promote a "culture of safety" in all countries, especially those
that are disaster-prone, the following activities should be carried out:

(a) Completing national and local studies on the nature and occurrence
of natural disasters, their impact on people and economic activities, the
effects of inadequate construction and land use in hazard-prone areas, and the
social and economic advantages of adequate pre-disaster planning;

(b) Implementing nationwide and local awareness campaigns through all
available media, translating the above knowledge into information easily
comprehensible to the general public and to the populations directly exposed
to hazards;

(c) Strengthening, and/or developing global, regional, national and
local early warning systems to alert populations to impending disasters;

(d) Identifying industrially based environmental disaster areas at the
national and international levels and implementing strategies aimed at the
rehabilitation of these areas through, inter alia:

(i) Restructuring of the economic activities and promoting new job
opportunities in environmentally sound sectors;

(ii) Promoting close collaboration between governmental and local
authorities, local communities and non-governmental organizations
and private business;

(iii) Developing and enforcing strict environmental control standards.

(b) Developing pre-disaster planning

7.61. Pre-disaster planning should form an integral part of human settlement
planning in all countries. The following should be included:

(a) Undertaking complete multi-hazard research into risk and
vulnerability of human settlements and settlement infrastructure, including
water and sewerage, communication and transportation networks, as one type of
risk reduction may increase vulnerability to another (e.g., an
earthquake-resistant house made of wood will be more vulnerable to wind
storms);

(b) Developing methodologies for determining risk and vulnerability
within specific human settlements and incorporating risk and vulnerability
reduction into the human settlement planning and management process;

(c) Redirecting inappropriate new development and human settlements to
areas not prone to hazards;

(d) Preparing guidelines on location, design and operation of
potentially hazardous industries and activities;

(e) Developing tools (legal, economic etc.) to encourage
disaster-sensitive development, including means of ensuring that limitations
on development options are not punitive to owners, or incorporate alternative
means of compensation;

(f) Further developing and disseminating information on
disaster-resistant building materials and construction technologies for
buildings and public works in general;

(g) Developing training programmes for contractors and builders on
disaster-resistant construction methods. Some programmes should be directed
particularly to small enterprises, which build the great majority of housing
and other small buildings in the developing countries, as well as to the rural
populations, which build their own houses;

(h) Developing training programmes for emergency site managers,
non-governmental organizations and community groups which cover all aspects
of disaster mitigation, including urban search and rescue, emergency
communications, early warning techniques, and pre-disaster planning;

(i) Developing procedures and practices to enable local communities to
receive information about hazardous installations or situations in these
areas, and facilitate their participation in early warning and disaster
abatement and response procedures and plans;

(j) Preparing action plans for the reconstruction of settlements,
especially the reconstruction of community life-lines.

(c) Initiating post-disaster reconstruction and rehabilitation planning

7.62. The international community, as a major partner in post-reconstruction
and rehabilitation, should ensure that the countries involved derive the
greatest benefits from the funds allocated by undertaking the following
activities:

(a) Carrying out research on past experiences on the social and economic
aspects of post-disaster reconstruction and adopting effective strategies and
guidelines for post-disaster reconstruction, with particular focus on
development-focused strategies in the allocation of scarce reconstruction
resources, and on the opportunities that post-disaster reconstruction provides
to introduce sustainable settlement patterns;

(b) Preparing and disseminating international guidelines for adaptation
to national and local needs;

(c) Supporting efforts of national Governments to initiate contingency
planning, with participation of affected communities, for post-disaster
reconstruction and rehabilitation.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

cont'd

7.63. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.64. Scientists and engineers specializing in this field in both developing
and developed countries should collaborate with urban and regional planners
in order to provide the basic knowledge and means to mitigate losses owing to
disasters as well as environmentally inappropriate development.

(c) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.65. Developing countries should conduct training programmes on
disaster-resistant construction methods for contractors and builders, who
build the majority of housing in the developing countries. This should focus
on the small business enterprises, which build the majority of housing in the
developing countries.

7.66. Training programmes should be extended to government officials and
planners and community and non-governmental organizations to cover all aspects
of disaster mitigation, such as early warning techniques, pre-disaster
planning and construction, post-disaster construction and rehabilitation.

G. Promoting sustainable construction industry activities

Basis for action

7.67. The activities of the construction sector are vital to the achievement
of the national socio-economic development goals of providing shelter,
infrastructure and employment. However, they can be a major source of
environmental damage through depletion of the natural resource base,
degradation of fragile eco-zones, chemical pollution and the use of building
materials harmful to human health.

Objectives

7.68. The objectives are, first, to adopt policies and technologies and to
exchange information on them in order to enable the construction sector to
meet human settlement development goals, while avoiding harmful side-effects
on human health and on the biosphere, and, second, to enhance the
employment-generation capacity of the construction sector. Governments should
work in close collaboration with the private sector in achieving these
objectives.

Activities

7.69. All countries should, as appropriate and in accordance with national
plans, objectives and priorities:

(a) Establish and strengthen indigenous building materials industry,
based, as much as possible, on inputs of locally available natural resources;

(b) Formulate programmes to enhance the utilization of local materials
by the construction sector by expanding technical support and incentive
schemes for increasing the capabilities and economic viability of small-scale
and informal operatives which make use of these materials and traditional
construction techniques;

(c) Adopt standards and other regulatory measures which promote the
increased use of energy-efficient designs and technologies and sustainable
utilization of natural resources in an economically and environmentally
appropriate way;

(d) Formulate appropriate land-use policies and introduce planning
regulations specially aimed at the protection of eco-sensitive zones against
physical disruption by construction and construction-related activities;

(e) Promote the use of labour-intensive construction and maintenance
technologies which generate employment in the construction sector for the
underemployed labour force found in most large cities, while at the same time
promoting the development of skills in the construction sector;

(f) Develop policies and practices to reach the informal sector and
self-help housing builders by adopting measures to increase the affordability
of building materials on the part of the urban and rural poor, through,
inter alia, credit schemes and bulk procurement of building materials for sale
to small-scale builders and communities.

cont'd

7.70. All countries should:

(a) Promote the free exchange of information on the entire range of
environmental and health aspects of construction, including the development
and dissemination of databases on the adverse environmental effects of
building materials through the collaborative efforts of the private and public
sectors;

(b) Promote the development and dissemination of databases on the
adverse environmental and health effects of building materials and introduce
legislation and financial incentives to promote recycling of energy-intensive
materials in the construction industry and conservation of waste energy in
building-materials production methods;

(c) Promote the use of economic instruments, such as product charges,
to discourage the use of construction materials and products that create
pollution during their life cycle;

(d) Promote information exchange and appropriate technology transfer
among all countries, with particular attention to developing countries, for
resource management in construction, particularly for non-renewable resources;

(e) Promote research in construction industries and related activities,
and establish and strengthen institutions in this sector.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.71. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$40 billion, including about $4 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

(b) Human resource development and capacity-building

7.72. Developing countries should be assisted by international support and
funding agencies in upgrading the technical and managerial capacities of the
small entrepreneur and the vocational skills of operatives and supervisors in
the building materials industry, using a variety of training methods. These
countries should also be assisted in developing programmes to encourage the
use of non-waste and clean technologies through appropriate transfer of
technology.

7.73. General education programmes should be developed in all countries, as
appropriate, to increase builder awareness of available sustainable
technologies.

7.74. Local authorities are called upon to play a pioneering role in
promoting the increased use of environmentally sound building materials and
construction technologies, e.g., by pursuing an innovative procurement policy.

H. Promoting human resource development and capacity-building
for human settlements development

Basis for action

7.75. Most countries, in addition to shortcomings in the availability of
specialized expertise in the areas of housing, settlement management, land
management, infrastructure, construction, energy, transport, and pre-disaster
planning and reconstruction, face three cross-sectoral human resource
development and capacity-building shortfalls. First is the absence of an
enabling policy environment capable of integrating the resources and
activities of the public sector, the private sector and the community, or
social sector; second is the weakness of specialized training and research
institutions; and third is the insufficient capacity for technical training
and assistance for low-income communities, both urban and rural.

Objective

7.76. The objective is to improve human resource development and
capacity-building in all countries by enhancing the personal and institutional
capacity of all actors, particularly indigenous people and women, involved in
human settlement development. In this regard, account should be taken of
traditional cultural practices of indigenous people and their relationship to
the environment.

Activities

7.77. Specific human resource development and capacity-building activities
have been built into each of the programme areas of this chapter. More
generally, however, additional steps should be taken to reinforce those
activities. In order to do so, all countries, as appropriate, should take the
following action:

(a) Strengthening the development of human resources and of capacities
of public sector institutions through technical assistance and international
cooperation so as to achieve by the year 2000 substantial improvement in the
efficiency of governmental activities;

(b) Creating an enabling policy environment supportive of the
partnership between the public, private and community sectors;

(c) Providing enhanced training and technical assistance to
institutions providing training for technicians, professionals and
administrators, and appointed, elected and professional members of local
governments and strengthening their capacity to address priority training
needs, particularly in regard to social, economic and environmental aspects
of human settlements development;

(d) Providing direct assistance for human settlement development at the
community level, inter alia, by:

(i) Strengthening and promoting programmes for social mobilization and
raising awareness of the potential of women and youth in human
settlements activities;
(ii) Facilitating coordination of the activities of women, youth,
community groups and non-governmental organizations in human
settlements development;

(iii) Promoting research on women's programmes and other groups, and
evaluating progress made with a view to identifying bottlenecks and
needed assistance;

(e) Promoting the inclusion of integrated environmental management into
general local government activities.

cont'd

7.78. Both international organizations and non-governmental organizations
should support the above activities by, inter alia, strengthening subregional
training institutions, providing updated training materials and disseminating
the results of successful human resource and capacity-building activities,
programmes and projects.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

7.79. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$65 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

7.80. Both formal training and non-formal types of human resource development
and capacity-building programmes should be combined, and use should be made
of user-oriented training methods, up-to-date training materials and modern
audio-visual communication systems.

Notes

1/ No aggregate figures are available on internal expenditure or
official development assistance on human settlements. However, data available
in the World Development Report, 1991, for 16 low-income developing countries
show that the percentage of central government expenditure on housing,
amenities and social security and welfare for 1989 averaged 5.6 per cent, with
a high of 15.1 per cent in the case of Sri Lanka, which has embarked on a
vigorous housing programme. In OECD industrialized countries, during the same
year, the percentage of central government expenditure on housing, amenities
and social security and welfare ranged from a minimum of 29.3 per cent to a
maximum of 49.4 per cent, with an average of 39 per cent (World Bank, World
Development Report, 1991, World Development Indicators, table 11
(Washington, D.C., 1991)).

2/ See the report of the Director-General for Development and
International Economic Cooperation containing preliminary statistical data on
operational activities of the United Nations system for 1988
(A/44/324-E/1989/106/Add.4, annex).

3/ World Bank, Annual Report, 1991 (Washington, D.C., 1991).

4/ UNDP, "Reported investment commitments related to UNDP-assisted
projects, 1988", table 1, "Sectoral distribution of investment commitment in
1988-1989".

5/ A pilot programme of this type, the City Data Programme (CDP), is
already in operation in the United Nations Centre on Human Settlements
(Habitat) aimed at the production and dissemination to participating cities
of microcomputer application software designed to store, process and retrieve
city data for local, national and international exchange and dissemination.

6/ This calls for integrated land-resource management policies, which
are also addressed in chapter 10 of Agenda 21 (Integrated approach to planning
and management of land resources).

7/ The goals of the International Decade for Natural Disaster
Reduction, set out in the annex to General Assembly resolution 44/236, are as
follows:

(a) To improve the capacity of each country to mitigate the effects of
natural disasters expeditiously and effectively, paying special attention to
assisting developing countries in the assessment of disaster damage potential
and in the establishment of early warning systems and disaster-resistant
structures when and where needed;

(b) To devise appropriate guidelines and strategies for applying
existing scientific and technical knowledge, taking into account the cultural
and economic diversity among nations;

(c) To foster scientific and engineering endeavours aimed at closing
critical gaps in knowledge in order to reduce loss of life and property;

(d) To disseminate existing and new technical information related to
measures for the assessment, prediction and mitigation of natural disasters;

(e) To develop measures for the assessment, prediction, prevention and
mitigation of natural disasters through programmes of technical assistance and
technology transfer, demonstration projects, and education and training,
tailored to specific disasters and locations, and to evaluate the
effectiveness of those programmes.

END OF CHAPTER 7

Chapter 8

INTEGRATING ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT IN DECISION-MAKING

INTRODUCTION

8.1. This chapter contains the following programme areas:

(a) Integrating environment and development at the policy, planning
and management levels;

(b) Providing an effective legal and regulatory framework;

(c) Making effective use of economic instruments and market and other
incentives;

(d) Establishing systems for integrated environmental and economic
accounting.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Integrating environment and development at the policy,
planning and management levels

Basis for action

8.2. Prevailing systems for decision-making in many countries tend to
separate economic, social and environmental factors at the policy, planning
and management levels. This influences the actions of all groups in society,
including Governments, industry and individuals, and has important
implications for the efficiency and sustainability of development. An
adjustment or even a fundamental reshaping of decision-making, in the light
of country-specific conditions, may be necessary if environment and
development is to be put at the centre of economic and political
decision-making, in effect achieving a full integration of these factors. In
recent years, some Governments have also begun to make significant changes in
the institutional structures of government in order to enable more systematic
consideration of the environment when decisions are made on economic, social,
fiscal, energy, agricultural, transportation, trade and other policies, as
well as the implications of policies in these areas for the environment. New
forms of dialogue are also being developed for achieving better integration
among national and local government, industry, science, environmental groups
and the public in the process of developing effective approaches to
environment and development. The responsibility for bringing about changes
lies with Governments in partnership with the private sector and local
authorities, and in collaboration with national, regional and international
organizations, including in particular UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank.
Exchange of experience between countries can also be significant. National
plans, goals and objectives, national rules, regulations and law, and the
specific situation in which different countries are placed are the overall
framework in which such integration takes place. In this context, it must be
borne in mind that environmental standards may pose severe economic and social
costs if they are uniformly applied in developing countries.

Objectives

8.3. The overall objective is to improve or restructure the decision-making
process so that consideration of socio-economic and environmental issues is
fully integrated and a broader range of public participation assured.
Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance
with their prevailing conditions, needs, national plans, policies and
programmes, the following objectives are proposed:

(a) To conduct a national review of economic, sectoral and environmental
policies, strategies and plans to ensure the progressive integration of
environmental and developmental issues;

(b) To strengthen institutional structures to allow the full integration
of environmental and developmental issues, at all levels of decision-making;

(c) To develop or improve mechanisms to facilitate the involvement of
concerned individuals, groups and organizations in decision-making at all
levels;

(d) To establish domestically determined procedures to integrate
environment and development issues in decision-making.

Activities

(a) Improving decision-making processes

8.4. The primary need is to integrate environmental and developmental
decision-making processes. To do this, Governments should conduct a national
review and, where appropriate, improve the processes of decision-making so as
to achieve the progressive integration of economic, social and environmental
issues in the pursuit of development that is economically efficient, socially
equitable and responsible and environmentally sound. Countries will develop
their own priorities in accordance with their national plans, policies and
programmes for the following activities:

(a) Ensuring the integration of economic, social and environmental
considerations in decision-making at all levels and in all ministries;

(b) Adopting a domestically formulated policy framework that reflects
a long-term perspective and cross-sectoral approach as the basis for
decisions, taking account of the linkages between and within the various
political, economic, social and environmental issues involved in the
development process;

(c) Establishing domestically determined ways and means to ensure the
coherence of sectoral, economic, social and environmental policies, plans and
policy instruments, including fiscal measures and the budget; these mechanisms
should apply at various levels and bring together those interested in the
development process;

(d) Monitoring and evaluating the development process systematically,
conducting regular reviews of the state of human resources development,
economic and social conditions and trends, the state of the environment and
natural resources; this could be complemented by annual environment and
development reviews, with a view to assessing sustainable development
achievements by the various sectors and departments of government;
(e) Ensuring transparency of, and accountability for, the environmental
implications of economic and sectoral policies;

(f) Ensuring access by the public to relevant information, facilitating
the reception of public views and allowing for effective participation.

(b) Improving planning and management systems

8.5. To support a more integrated approach to decision-making, the data
systems and analytical methods used to support such decision-making processes
may need to be improved. Governments, in collaboration, where appropriate,
with national and international organizations, should review the status of the
planning and management system and, where necessary, modify and strengthen
procedures so as to facilitate the integrated consideration of social,
economic and environmental issues. Countries will develop their own
priorities in accordance with their national plans, policies and programmes
for the following activities:

(a) Improving the use of data and information at all stages of planning
and management, making systematic and simultaneous use of social, economic,
developmental, ecological and environmental data; analysis should stress
interactions and synergisms; a broad range of analytical methods should be
encouraged so as to provide various points of view;

(b) Adopting comprehensive analytical procedures for prior and
simultaneous assessment of the impacts of decisions, including the impacts
within and among the economic, social and environmental spheres; these
procedures should extend beyond the project level to policies and programmes;
analysis should also include assessment of costs, benefits and risks;

(c) Adopting flexible and integrative planning approaches that allow the
consideration of multiple goals and enable adjustment of changing needs;
integrative area approaches at the ecosystem or watershed level can assist in
this approach;

(d) Adopting integrated management systems, particularly for the
management of natural resources; traditional or indigenous methods should be
studied and considered wherever they have proved effective; women's
traditional roles should not be marginalized as a result of the introduction
of new management systems;

(e) Adopting integrated approaches to sustainable development at the
regional level, including transboundary areas, subject to the requirements of
particular circumstances and needs;

(f) Using policy instruments (legal/regulatory and economic) as a tool
for planning and management, seeking incorporation of efficiency criteria in
decisions; instruments should be regularly reviewed and adapted to ensure that
they continue to be effective;

(g) Delegating planning and management responsibilities to the lowest
level of public authority consistent with effective action; in particular the
advantages of effective and equitable opportunities for participation by women
should be discussed;

(h) Establishing procedures for involving local communities in
contingency planning for environmental and industrial accidents, and
maintaining an open exchange of information on local hazards.

(c) Data and information

8.6. Countries could develop systems for monitoring and evaluation of
progress towards achieving sustainable development by adopting indicators that
measure changes across economic, social and environmental dimensions.

(d) Adopting a national strategy for sustainable development

8.7. Governments, in cooperation, where appropriate, with international
organizations, should adopt a national strategy for sustainable development
based on, inter alia, the implementation of decisions taken at the Conference,
particularly in respect of Agenda 21. This strategy should build upon and
harmonize the various sectoral economic, social and environmental policies and
plans that are operating in the country. The experience gained through
existing planning exercises such as national reports for the Conference,
national conservation strategies and environment action plans should be fully
used and incorporated into a country-driven sustainable development strategy.
Its goals should be to ensure socially responsible economic development while
protecting the resource base and the environment for the benefit of future
generations. It should be developed through the widest possible
participation. It should be based on a thorough assessment of the current
situation and initiatives.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

8.8. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Researching environment and development interactions

8.9. Governments, in collaboration with the national and international
scientific community and in cooperation with international organizations, as
appropriate, should intensify efforts to clarify the interactions between and
within social, economic and environmental considerations. Research should be
undertaken with the explicit objective of assisting policy decisions and
providing recommendations on improving management practices.

(c) Enhancing education and training

8.10. Countries, in cooperation, where appropriate, with national, regional
or international organizations, should ensure that essential human resources
exist, or be developed, to undertake the integration of environment and
development at various stages of the decision-making and implementation
process. To do this, they should improve education and technical training,
particularly for women and girls, by including interdisciplinary approaches,
as appropriate, in technical, vocational, university and other curricula.
They should also undertake systematic training of government personnel,
planners and managers on a regular basis, giving priority to the requisite
integrative approaches and planning and management techniques that are suited
to country-specific conditions.

(d) Promoting public awareness

8.11. Countries, in cooperation with national institutions and groups, the
media and the international community, should promote awareness in the public
at large, as well as in specialized circles, of the importance of considering
environment and development in an integrated manner, and should establish
mechanisms for facilitating a direct exchange of information and views with
the public. Priority should be given to highlighting the responsibilities and
potential contributions of different social groups.

(e) Strengthen national institutional capacity

8.12. Governments, in cooperation, where appropriate, with international
organizations, should strengthen national institutional capability and
capacity to integrate social, economic, developmental and environmental issues
at all levels of development decision-making and implementation. Attention
should be given to moving away from narrow sectoral approaches, progressing
towards full cross-sectoral coordination and cooperation.

B. Providing an effective legal and regulatory framework
Basis for action

8.13. Laws and regulations suited to country-specific conditions are among
the most important instruments for transforming environment and development
policies into action, not only through "command and control" methods, but also
as a normative framework for economic planning and market instruments. Yet,
although the volume of legal texts in this field is steadily increasing, much
of the law-making in many countries seems to be ad hoc and piecemeal, or has
not been endowed with the necessary institutional machinery and authority for
enforcement and timely adjustment.

8.14. While there is continuous need for law improvement in all countries,
many developing countries have been affected by shortcomings of laws and
regulations. To effectively integrate environment and development in the
policies and practices of each country, it is essential to develop and
implement integrated, enforceable and effective laws and regulations that are
based upon sound social, ecological, economic and scientific principles. It
is equally critical to develop workable programmes to review and enforce
compliance with the laws, regulations and standards that are adopted.
Technical support may be needed for many countries to accomplish these goals.
Technical cooperation requirements in this field include legal information,
advisory services and specialized training and institutional
capacity-building.

8.15. The enactment and enforcement of laws and regulations (at the regional,
national, state/provincial or local/municipal level) are also essential for
the implementation of most international agreements in the field of
environment and development, as illustrated by the frequent treaty obligation
to report on legislative measures. The survey of existing agreements
undertaken in the context of conference preparations has indicated problems
of compliance in this respect, and the need for improved national
implementation and, where appropriate, related technical assistance. In
developing their national priorities, countries should take account of their
international obligations.

Objectives

8.16. The overall objective is to promote, in the light of country-specific
conditions, the integration of environment and development policies through
appropriate legal and regulatory policies, instruments and enforcement
mechanisms at the national, state, provincial and local level. Recognizing
that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance with their
needs and national and, where appropriate, regional plans, policies and
programmes, the following objectives are proposed:

(a) To disseminate information on effective legal and regulatory
innovations in the field of environment and development, including appropriate
instruments and compliance incentives, with a view to encouraging their wider
use and adoption at the national, state, provincial and local level;

(b) To support countries that request it in their national efforts to
modernize and strengthen the policy and legal framework of governance for
sustainable development, having due regard for local social values and
infrastructures;

(c) To encourage the development and implementation of national, state,
provincial and local programmes that assess and promote compliance and respond
appropriately to non-compliance.

Activities

(a) Making laws and regulations more effective

8.17. Governments, with the support, where appropriate, of competent
international organizations, should regularly assess the laws and regulations
enacted and the related institutional/administrative machinery established at
the national/state and local/municipal level in the field of environment and
sustainable development, with a view to rendering them effective in practice.
Programmes for this purpose could include the promotion of public awareness,
preparation and distribution of guidance material, and specialized training,
including workshops, seminars, education programmes and conferences, for
public officials who design, implement, monitor and enforce laws and
regulations.

(b) Establishing judicial and administrative procedures

8.18. Governments and legislators, with the support, where appropriate, of
competent international organizations, should establish judicial and
administrative procedures for legal redress and remedy of actions affecting
environment and development that may be unlawful or infringe on rights under
the law, and should provide access to individuals, groups and organizations
with a recognized legal interest.

(c) Providing legal reference and support services

8.19. Competent intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations could
cooperate to provide Governments and legislators, upon request, with an
integrated programme of environment and development law (sustainable
development law) services, carefully adapted to the specific requirements of
the recipient legal and administrative systems. Such systems could usefully
include assistance in the preparation of comprehensive inventories and reviews
of national legal systems. Past experience has demonstrated the usefulness
of combining specialized legal information services with legal expert advice.
Within the United Nations system, closer cooperation among all agencies
concerned would avoid duplication of databases and facilitate division of
labour. These agencies could examine the possibility and merit of performing
reviews of selected national legal systems.

(d) Establishing a cooperative training network for sustainable development
law

8.20. Competent international and academic institutions could, within agreed
frameworks, cooperate to provide, especially for trainees from developing
countries, postgraduate programmes and in-service training facilities in
environment and development law. Such training should address both the
effective application and the progressive improvement of applicable laws, the
related skills of negotiating, drafting and mediation, and the training of
trainers. Intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations already active
in this field could cooperate with related university programmes to harmonize
curriculum planning and to offer an optimal range of options to interested
Governments and potential sponsors.

(e) Developing effective national programmes for reviewing and enforcing
compliance with national, state, provincial and local laws on
environment and development

8.21. Each country should develop integrated strategies to maximize
compliance with its laws and regulations relating to sustainable development,
with assistance from international organizations and other countries as
appropriate. The strategies could include:

(a) Enforceable, effective laws, regulations and standards that are
based on sound economic, social and environmental principles and appropriate
risk assessment, incorporating sanctions designed to punish violations, obtain
redress and deter future violations;

(b) Mechanisms for promoting compliance;

(c) Institutional capacity for collecting compliance data, regularly
reviewing compliance, detecting violations, establishing enforcement
priorities, undertaking effective enforcement, and conducting periodic
evaluations of the effectiveness of compliance and enforcement programmes;

(d) Mechanisms for appropriate involvement of individuals and groups in
the development and enforcement of laws and regulations on environment and
development.

(f) National monitoring of legal follow-up to international instruments
8.22. Contracting parties to international agreements, in consultation with
the appropriate secretariats of relevant international conventions as
appropriate, should improve practices and procedures for collecting
information on legal and regulatory measures taken. Contracting parties to
international agreements could undertake sample surveys of domestic follow-up
action subject to agreement by the sovereign States concerned.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

8.23. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$6 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

8.24. The programme relies essentially on a continuation of ongoing work for
legal data collection, translation and assessment. Closer cooperation between
existing databases may be expected to lead to better division of labour
(e.g., in geographical coverage of national legislative gazettes and other
reference sources) and to improved standardization and compatibility of data,
as appropriate.

(c) Human resource development

8.25. Participation in training is expected to benefit practitioners from
developing countries and to enhance training opportunities for women. Demand
for this type of postgraduate and in-service training is known to be high.
The seminars, workshops and conferences on review and enforcement that have
been held to date have been very successful and well attended. The purpose
of these efforts is to develop resources (both human and institutional) to
design and implement effective programmes to continuously review and enforce
national and local laws, regulations and standards on sustainable development.

(d) Strengthening legal and institutional capacity

8.26. A major part of the programme should be oriented towards improving the
legal-institutional capacities of countries to cope with national problems of
governance and effective law-making and law-applying in the field of
environment and sustainable development. Regional centres of excellence could
be designated and supported to build up specialized databases and training
facilities for linguistic/cultural groups of legal systems.

C. Making effective use of economic instruments and market
and other incentives

Basis for action

8.27. Environmental law and regulation are important but cannot alone be
expected to deal with the problems of environment and development. Prices,
markets and governmental fiscal and economic policies also play a
complementary role in shaping attitudes and behaviour towards the environment.

8.28. During the past several years, many Governments, primarily in
industrialized countries but also in Central and Eastern Europe and in
developing countries, have been making increasing use of economic approaches,
including those that are market-oriented. Examples include the polluter-pays
principle and the more recent natural-resource-user-pays concept.

8.29. Within a supportive international and national economic context and
given the necessary legal and regulatory framework, economic and
market-oriented approaches can in many cases enhance capacity to deal with the
issues of environment and development. This would be achieved by providing
cost-effective solutions, applying integrated pollution prevention control,
promoting technological innovation and influencing environmental behaviour,
as well as providing financial resources to meet sustainable development
objectives.

8.30. What is needed is an appropriate effort to explore and make more
effective and widespread use of economic and market-oriented approaches within
a broad framework of development policies, law and regulation suited to
country-specific conditions as part of a general transition to economic and
environmental policies that are supportive and mutually reinforcing.

Objectives

8.31. Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in
accordance with their needs and national plans, policies and programmes, the
challenge is to achieve significant progress in the years ahead in meeting
three fundamental objectives:

(a) To incorporate environmental costs in the decisions of producers and
consumers, to reverse the tendency to treat the environment as a "free good"
and to pass these costs on to other parts of society, other countries, or to
future generations;

(b) To move more fully towards integration of social and environmental
costs into economic activities, so that prices will appropriately reflect the
relative scarcity and total value of resources and contribute towards the
prevention of environmental degradation;

(c) To include, wherever appropriate, the use of market principles in
the framing of economic instruments and policies to pursue sustainable
development.

Activities

(a) Improving or reorienting governmental policies

8.32. In the near term, Governments should consider gradually building on
experience with economic instruments and market mechanisms by undertaking to
reorient their policies, keeping in mind national plans, priorities and
objectives, in order to:

(a) Establish effective combinations of economic, regulatory and
voluntary (self-regulatory) approaches;

(b) Remove or reduce those subsidies that do not conform with
sustainable development objectives;

(c) Reform or recast existing structures of economic and fiscal
incentives to meet environment and development objectives;

(d) Establish a policy framework that encourages the creation of new
markets in pollution control and environmentally sounder resource management;

(e) Move towards pricing consistent with sustainable development
objectives.

8.33. In particular, Governments should explore, in cooperation with business
and industry, as appropriate, how effective use can be made of economic
instruments and market mechanisms in the following areas:

(a) Issues related to energy, transportation, agriculture and forestry,
water, wastes, health, tourism and tertiary services;

(b) Global and transboundary issues;

(c) The development and introduction of environmentally sound technology
and its adaptation, diffusion and transfer to developing countries in
conformity with chapter 34.

(b) Taking account of the particular circumstances of developing countries
and countries with economies in transition

8.34. A special effort should be made to develop applications of the use of
economic instruments and market mechanisms geared to the particular needs of
developing countries and countries with economies in transition, with the
assistance of regional and international economic and environmental
organizations and, as appropriate, non-governmental research institutes, by:

(a) Providing technical support to those countries on issues relating
to the application of economic instruments and market mechanisms;

(b) Encouraging regional seminars and, possibly, the development of
regional centres of expertise.

(c) Creating an inventory of effective uses of economic instruments and
market mechanisms

8.35. Given the recognition that the use of economic instruments and market
mechanisms is relatively recent, exchange of information about different
countries' experiences with such approaches should be actively encouraged.
In this regard, Governments should encourage the use of existing means of
information exchange to look at effective uses of economic instruments.

(d) Increasing understanding of the role of economic instruments and market
mechanisms

8.36. Governments should encourage research and analysis on effective uses
of economic instruments and incentives with the assistance and support of
regional and international economic and environmental organizations, as well
as non-governmental research institutes, with a focus on such key issues as:

(a) The role of environmental taxation suited to national conditions;

(b) The implications of economic instruments and incentives for
competitiveness and international trade, and potential needs for appropriate
future international cooperation and coordination;

(c) The possible social and distributive implications of using various
instruments.

(e) Establishing a process for focusing on pricing

8.37. The theoretical advantages of using pricing policies, where
appropriate, need to be better understood, and accompanied by greater
understanding of what it means to take significant steps in this direction.
Processes should therefore be initiated, in cooperation with business,
industry, large enterprises, transnational corporations, as well as other
social groups, as appropriate, at both the national and international levels,
to examine:

(a) The practical implications of moving towards greater reliance on
pricing that internalize environmental costs appropriate to help achieve
sustainable development objectives;

(b) The implications for resource pricing in the case of
resource-exporting countries, including the implications of such pricing
policies for developing countries;

(c) The methodologies used in valuing environmental costs.

(f) Enhancing understanding of sustainable development economics

8.38. Increased interest in economic instruments, including market
mechanisms, also requires a concerted effort to improve understanding of
sustainable development economics by:

(a) Encouraging institutions of higher learning to review their
curricula and strengthen studies in sustainable development economics;

(b) Encouraging regional and international economic organizations and
non-governmental research institutes with expertise in this area to provide
training sessions and seminars for government officials;

(c) Encouraging business and industry, including large industrial
enterprises and transnational corporations with expertise in environmental
matters, to organize training programmes for the private sector and other
groups.

Means of implementation

8.39. This programme involves adjustments or reorientation of policies on the
part of Governments. It also involves international and regional economic and
environmental organizations and agencies with expertise in this area,
including transnational corporations.

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

8.40. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$5 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

D. Establishing systems for integrated environmental and
economic accounting

Basis for action

8.41. A first step towards the integration of sustainability into economic
management is the establishment of better measurement of the crucial role of
the environment as a source of natural capital and as a sink for by-products
generated during the production of man-made capital and other human
activities. As sustainable development encompasses social, economic and
environmental dimensions, it is also important that national accounting
procedures are not restricted to measuring the production of goods and
services that are conventionally remunerated. A common framework needs to be
developed whereby the contributions made by all sectors and activities of
society, that are not included in the conventional national accounts, are
included, to the extent consistent with sound theory and practicability, in
satellite accounts. A programme to develop national systems of integrated
environmental and economic accounting in all countries is proposed.

Objectives

8.42. The main objective is to expand existing systems of national economic
accounts in order to integrate environment and social dimensions in the
accounting framework, including at least satellite systems of accounts for
natural resources in all member States. The resulting systems of integrated
environmental and economic accounting (IEEA) to be established in all member
States at the earliest date should be seen as a complement to, rather than a
substitute for, traditional national accounting practices for the foreseeable
future. IEEAs would be designed to play an integral part in the national
development decision-making process. National accounting agencies should work
in close collaboration with national environmental statistics as well as the
geographic and natural resource departments. The definition of economically
active could be expanded to include people performing productive but unpaid
tasks in all countries. This would enable their contribution to be adequately
measured and taken into account in decision-making.

Activities

(a) Strengthening international cooperation

8.43. The Statistical Office of the United Nations Secretariat should:

(a) Make available to all member States the methodologies contained in
the SNA Handbook on Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting;

(b) In collaboration with other relevant United Nations organizations,
further develop, test, refine and then standardize the provisional concepts
and methods such as those proposed by the SNA Handbook, keeping member States
informed of the status of the work throughout this process;

(c) Coordinate, in close cooperation with other international
organizations, the training of national accountants, environmental
statisticians and national technical staff in small groups for the
establishment, adaptation and development of national IEEAs.

8.44. The Department of Economic and Social Development of the United Nations
Secretariat, in close collaboration with other relevant United Nations
organizations, should:

(a) Support, in all member States, the utilization of sustainable
development indicators in national economic and social planning and
decision-making practices, with a view to ensuring that IEEAs are usefully
integrated in economic development planning at the national level;

(b) Promote improved environmental and economic and social data
collection.

(b) Strengthening national accounting systems

8.45. At the national level, the programme could be adopted mainly by the
agencies dealing with national accounts, in close cooperation with
environmental statistics and natural resource departments, with a view to
assisting national economic analysts and decision makers in charge of national
economic planning. National institutions should play a crucial role not only
as the depositary of the system but also in its adaptation, establishment and
continuous use. Unpaid productive work such as domestic work and child care
should be included, where appropriate, in satellite national accounts and
economic statistics. Time-use surveys could be a first step in the process
of developing these satellite accounts.

(c) Establishing an assessment process

8.46. At the international level, the Statistical Commission should assemble
and review experience and advise member States on technical and methodological
issues related to the further development and implementation of IEEAs in
member States.

8.47. Governments should seek to identify and consider measures to correct
price distortions arising from environmental programmes affecting land, water,
energy and other natural resources.

8.48. Governments should encourage corporations:

(a) To provide relevant environmental information through transparent
reporting to shareholders, creditors, employees, governmental authorities,
consumers and the public;

(b) To develop and implement methods and rules for accounting for
sustaining development.

(d) Strengthening data and information collection

8.49. National Governments could consider implementing the necessary
enhancement in data collection to set in place national IEEAs with a view to
contributing pragmatically to sound economic management. Major efforts should
be made to augment the capacity to collect and analyse environmental data and
information and to integrate it with economic data, including gender
disaggregated data. Efforts should also be made to develop physical
environmental accounts. International donor agencies should consider
financing the development of intersectoral data banks to help ensure that
national planning for sustainable development is based on precise, reliable
and effective information and is suited to national conditions.

(e) Strengthening technical cooperation

8.50. The Statistical Office of the United Nations Secretariat, in close
collaboration with relevant United Nations organizations, should strengthen
existing mechanisms for technical cooperation among countries. This should
also include exchange of experience in the establishment of IEEAs,
particularly in connection with the valuation of non-marketed natural
resources and standardization in data collection. The cooperation of business
and industry, including large industrial enterprises and transnational
corporations with experience in valuation of such resources, should also be
sought.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

8.51. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$2 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Strengthening institutions

8.52. To ensure the application of IEEAs:

(a) National institutions in developing countries could be strengthened
to ensure the effective integration of environment and development at the
planning and decision-making levels;

(b) The Statistical Office should provide the necessary technical
support to member States, in close collaboration with the assessment process
to be established by the Statistical Commission; the Statistical Office should
provide appropriate support for establishing IEEAs, in collaboration with
relevant United Nations agencies.

(c) Enhancing the use of information technology

8.53. Guidelines and mechanisms could be developed and agreed upon for the
adaptation and diffusion of information technologies to developing countries.
State-of-the-art data management technologies should be adopted for the most
efficient and widespread use of IEEAs.

(d) Strengthening national capacity

8.54. Governments, with the support of the international community, should
strengthen national institutional capacity to collect, store, organize, assess
and use data in decision-making. Training in all areas related to the
establishment of IEEAs, and at all levels, will be required, especially in
developing countries. This should include technical training of those
involved in economic and environmental analysis, data collection and national
accounting, as well as training decision makers to use such information in a
pragmatic and appropriate way.

END OF CHAPTER 8

Chapter 9

PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

INTRODUCTION

9.1. Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional endeavour
involving various sectors of economic activity. The options and measures
described in the present chapter are recommended for consideration and, as
appropriate, implementation by Governments and other bodies in their efforts
to protect the atmosphere.

9.2. It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this chapter are
also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985 Vienna Convention
for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal Protocol on
Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as amended, the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change and other international, including
regional, instruments. In the case of activities covered by such agreements,
it is understood that the recommendations contained in this chapter do not
oblige any Government to take measures which exceed the provisions of these
legal instruments. However, within the framework of this chapter, Governments
are free to carry out additional measures which are consistent with those
legal instruments.

9.3. It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in pursuit
of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with social and
economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding adverse
impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate priority needs
of developing countries for the achievement of sustained economic growth and
the eradication of poverty.

9.4. In this context particular reference is also made to programme area A
of chapter 2 of Agenda 21 (Promoting sustainable development through trade).

9.5. The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:

(a) Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific basis for
decision-making;

(b) Promoting sustainable development:

(i) Energy development, efficiency and consumption;

(ii) Transportation;

(iii) Industrial development;

(iv) Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;

(c) Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;

(d) Transboundary atmospheric pollution.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific
basis for decision-making

Basis for action

9.6. Concern about climate change and climate variability, air pollution and
ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific, economic and social
information to reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields. Better
understanding and prediction of the various properties of the atmosphere and
of the affected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and their interactions
with socio-economic factors, are needed.

Objectives

9.7. The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the
understanding of processes that influence and are influenced by the Earth's
atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including, inter alia,
physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, hydrological, economic
and social processes; to build capacity and enhance international cooperation;
and to improve understanding of the economic and social consequences of
atmospheric changes and of mitigation and response measures addressing such
changes.

Activities

9.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

(a) Promote research related to the natural processes affecting and
being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages between
sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including impacts on human
health, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;

(b) Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global Climate
Observing System and its components, including the Global Atmosphere Watch,
by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and operation of additional
systematic observation stations, and by contributing to the development,
utilization and accessibility of these databases;

(c) Promote cooperation in:

(i) The development of early detection systems concerning changes and
fluctuations in the atmosphere;

(ii) The establishment and improvement of capabilities to predict such
changes and fluctuations and to assess the resulting
environmental and socio-economic impacts;

(d) Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify
threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels of
greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system and the environment as a whole, and the
associated rates of change that would not allow ecosystems to adapt naturally;

(e) Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific capacities,
the exchange of scientific data and information, and the facilitation of the
participation and training of experts and technical staff, particularly of
developing countries, in the fields of research, data assembly, collection and
assessment, and systematic observation related to the atmosphere.

cont'd

B. Promoting sustainable development

1. Energy development, efficiency and consumption

Basis for action

9.9. Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved
quality of life. Much of the world's energy, however, is currently produced
and consumed in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to remain
constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially. The need
to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and substances
will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy production,
transmission, distribution and consumption, and on growing reliance on
environmentally sound energy systems, particularly new and renewable sources
of energy. 1/ All energy sources will need to be used in ways that respect
the atmosphere, human health and the environment as a whole.

9.10. The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound energy
supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable development,
particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.

Objectives

9.11. The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to reduce
adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by promoting policies
or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the contribution of environmentally
sound and cost-effective energy systems, particularly new and renewable ones,
through less polluting and more efficient energy production, transmission,
distribution and use. This objective should reflect the need for equity,
adequate energy supplies and increasing energy consumption in developing
countries, and should take into consideration the situations of countries that
are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and
export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive
products and/or the use of fossil fuels for which countries have serious
difficulties in switching to alternatives, and the situations of countries
highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climate change.

Activities

9.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

(a) Cooperate in identifying and developing economically viable,
environmentally sound energy sources to promote the availability of increased
energy supplies to support sustainable development efforts, in particular in
developing countries;

(b) Promote the development at the national level of appropriate
methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy
decisions for sustainable development, inter alia, through environmental
impact assessments;

(c) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of improved
energy-efficient technologies and practices, including endogenous technologies
in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the rehabilitation and
modernization of power systems, with particular attention to developing
countries;

(d) Promote the research, development, transfer and use of
technologies and practices for environmentally sound energy systems, including
new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention to developing
countries;
(e) Promote the development of institutional, scientific, planning and
management capacities, particularly in developing countries, to develop,
produce and use increasingly efficient and less polluting forms of energy;

(f) Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the
contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole, particularly
new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an economically
efficient manner, taking into account respective countries' unique social,
physical, economic and political characteristics, and examining and
implementing, where appropriate, measures to overcome any barriers to their
development and use;

(g) Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where
applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of
environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;

(h) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;

(i) Build capacity for energy planning and programme management in
energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and promotion
of new and renewable sources of energy;

(j) Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission standards or
recommendations at the national level, 2/ aimed at the development and use of
technologies that minimize adverse impacts on the environment;

(k) Encourage education and awareness-raising programmes at the local,
national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy efficiency and
environmentally sound energy systems;

(l) Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with the
private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide decision makers
and consumers with information on opportunities for energy efficiency.

2. Transportation

Basis for action

9.13. The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play in
economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly
increase. However, since the transport sector is also a source of atmospheric
emissions, there is need for a review of existing transport systems and for
more effective design and management of traffic and transport systems.

Objectives

9.14. The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce or
control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere and other
adverse environmental effects of the transport sector, taking into account
development priorities as well as the specific local and national
circumstances and safety aspects.

Activities

9.15. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

(a) Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost-effective, more
efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly integrated
rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally sound road networks,
taking into account the needs for sustainable social, economic and development
priorities, particularly in developing countries;

(b) Facilitate at the international, regional, subregional and
national levels access to and the transfer of safe, efficient, including
resource-efficient, and less polluting transport technologies, particularly
to the developing countries, including the implementation of appropriate
training programmes;

(c) Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting, analysing
and exchanging relevant information on the relation between environment and
transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic observation of emissions
and the development of a transport database;

(d) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage use of transportation modes that minimize
adverse impacts on the atmosphere;

(e) Develop or enhance, as appropriate, mechanisms to integrate
transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement planning
strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts of transport;

(f) Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its regional
commissions, the feasibility of convening regional conferences on transport
and the environment.

cont'd

3. Industrial development

Basis for action

9.16. Industry is essential for the production of goods and services and is
a major source of employment and income, and industrial development as such
is essential for economic growth. At the same time, industry is a major
resource and materials user and consequently industrial activities result in
emissions into the atmosphere and the environment as a whole. Protection of
the atmosphere can be enhanced, inter alia, by increasing resource and
materials efficiency in industry, installing or improving pollution abatement
technologies and replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other
ozone-depleting substances with appropriate substitutes, as well as by
reducing wastes and by-products.

Objectives

9.17. The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage industrial
development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere by,
inter alia, increasing efficiency in the production and consumption by
industry of all resources and materials, by improving pollution-abatement
technologies and by developing new environmentally sound technologies.

Activities

9.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote
cost-effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and
economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and adverse
impacts on the atmosphere;

(b) Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity to
develop technologies, products and processes that are safe, less polluting and
make more efficient use of all resources and materials, including energy;

(c) Cooperate in the development and transfer of such industrial
technologies and in the development of capacities to manage and use such
technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;
(d) Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments to
foster sustainable industrial development;

(e) Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking into
account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the economic and
environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently and producing fewer
wastes;

(f) Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient
technologies and processes in industries, taking into account area-specific
accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and renewable sources of
energy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution, and adverse impacts on
the atmosphere.

4. Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use

Basis for action

9.19. Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected by
changes in the atmosphere. Certain practices related to terrestrial and
marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and increase
atmospheric emissions. The loss of biological diversity may reduce the
resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air pollution damage.
Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on forests, biodiversity, and
freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as on economic activities, such as
agriculture. Policy objectives in different sectors may often diverge and
will need to be handled in an integrated manner.

Objectives

9.20. The objectives of this programme area are:

(a) To promote terrestrial and marine resource utilization and
appropriate land-use practices that contribute to:

(i) The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or the limitation of
anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;

(ii) The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement, where
appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;

(iii) The conservation and sustainable use of natural and environmental
resources;

(b) To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and their
socio-economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into account in planning
and implementing policies and programmes concerning terrestrial and marine
resources utilization and land-use practices.

Activities

9.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

(a) In accordance with national socio-economic development and
environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost-effective
policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic
measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound land-use practices;

(b) Implement policies and programmes that will discourage
inappropriate and polluting land-use practices and promote sustainable
utilization of terrestrial and marine resources;

(c) Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial and
marine resources and land-use practices that will be more resilient to
atmospheric changes and fluctuations;
(d) Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the conservation
and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases,
including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other terrestrial, coastal
and marine ecosystems.

C. Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion

Basis for action

9.22. Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing concern
about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer by
reactive chlorine and bromine from man-made CFCs, halons and related
substances. While the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone
Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone
Layer (as amended in London in 1990) were important steps in international
action, the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of ozone-depleting
substances has continued to rise. This can be changed through compliance with
the control measures identified within the Protocol.

Objectives

9.23. The objectives of this programme area are:

(a) To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention and the
Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the consideration in
those instruments of the special needs and conditions of the developing
countries and the availability to them of alternatives to substances that
deplete the ozone layer. Technologies and natural products that reduce demand
for these substances should be encouraged;

(b) To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a consequence of
depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone layer.

cont'd

Activities

9.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:

(a) Ratify, accept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its 1990
amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds
and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as
appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal Protocol and its
implementing mechanisms, including making available substitutes for CFCs and
other ozone-depleting substances and facilitating the transfer of the
corresponding technologies to developing countries in order to enable them to
comply with the obligations of the Protocol;

(b) Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing System by
facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding - the establishment
and operation of additional systematic observation stations, especially in the
tropical belt in the southern hemisphere;

(c) Participate actively in the continuous assessment of scientific
information and the health and environmental effects, as well as of the
technological/economic implications of stratospheric ozone depletion; and
consider further actions that prove warranted and feasible on the basis of
these assessments;

(d) Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional
ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider taking
appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health, agriculture and
marine environment;

(e) Replace CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances, consistent with
the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's suitability should be
evaluated holistically and not simply based on its contribution to solving one
atmospheric or environmental problem.

D. Transboundary atmospheric pollution

Basis for action

9.25. Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans and
other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and forest loss and the
acidification of water bodies. The geographical distribution of atmospheric
pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with the developing countries
severely underrepresented. The lack of reliable emissions data outside Europe
and North America is a major constraint to measuring transboundary air
pollution. There is also insufficient information on the environmental and
health effects of air pollution in other regions.

9.26. The 1979 Convention on Long-range Transboundary Air Pollution, and its
protocols, have established a regional regime in Europe and North America,
based on a review process and cooperative programmes for systematic
observation of air pollution, assessment and information exchange. These
programmes need to be continued and enhanced, and their experience needs to
be shared with other regions of the world.

Objectives

9.27. The objectives of this programme area are:

(a) To develop and apply pollution control and measurement
technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollution and to develop
alternative environmentally sound technologies;

(b) To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent of
transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and anthropogenic
activities;

(c) To strengthen the capabilities, particularly of developing
countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of transboundary
air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of information and training of
experts;

(d) To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate transboundary air
pollution resulting from industrial and nuclear accidents, natural disasters
and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural resources;

(e) To encourage the establishment of new and the implementation of
existing regional agreements for limiting transboundary air pollution;

(f) To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions causing
transboundary air pollution and their effects.

Activities

9.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the
relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and
non-governmental organizations, the private sector and financial institutions,
should:

(a) Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for transboundary
air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with developing countries,
in the areas of systematic observation and assessment, modelling and the
development and exchange of emission control technologies for mobile and
stationary sources of air pollution. In this context, greater emphasis should
be put on addressing the extent, causes, health and socio-economic impacts of
ultraviolet radiation, acidification of the environment and photo-oxidant
damage to forests and other vegetation;

(b) Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response
mechanisms for transboundary air pollution resulting from industrial accidents
and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of
natural resources;

(c) Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data,
information and national and/or regional experiences;

(d) Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to assess
transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement programmes
identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions and to address
their environmental, economic, social and other effects.

Means of implementation

International and regional cooperation

9.29. Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures which
relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work should
primarily continue in those contexts. Governments should continue to
cooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global levels,
including cooperation within the United Nations system. In this context
reference is made to the recommendations in chapter 38 of Agenda 21
(International institutional arrangements).

Capacity-building

9.30. Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations bodies,
international donors and non-governmental organizations, should mobilize
technical and financial resources and facilitate technical cooperation with
developing countries to reinforce their technical, managerial, planning and
administrative capacities to promote sustainable development and the
protection of the atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.

Human resource development

9.31. Education and awareness-raising programmes concerning the promotion of
sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere need to be
introduced and strengthened at the local, national and international levels
in all relevant sectors.

Financial and cost evaluation

9.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area A to be about
$640 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

9.33. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of the four-part programme under
programme area B to be about $20 billion from the international community on
grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude
estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and
financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon,
inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for
implementation.

9.34. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities under programme area C to be in the
range of $160-590 million on grant or concessional terms. These are
indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed
by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are
non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and
programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

9.35. The Conference secretariat has included costing for technical
assistance and pilot programmes under paragraphs 9.32 and 9.33.

Notes

1/ New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar
photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human power,
as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the Development and
Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy, prepared specifically for
the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and A/AC.218/1992/5).

2/ This includes standards or recommendations promoted by regional
economic integration organizations.

END OF CHAPTER 9

Chapter 10

INTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES

INTRODUCTION

10.1. Land is normally defined as a physical entity in terms of its
topography and spatial nature; a broader integrative view also includes
natural resources: the soils, minerals, water and biota that the land
comprises. These components are organized in ecosystems which provide a
variety of services essential to the maintenance of the integrity of
life-support systems and the productive capacity of the environment. Land
resources are used in ways that take advantage of all these characteristics.
Land is a finite resource, while the natural resources it supports can vary
over time and according to management conditions and uses. Expanding human
requirements and economic activities are placing ever increasing pressures on
land resources, creating competition and conflicts and resulting in suboptimal
use of both land and land resources. If, in the future, human requirements
are to be met in a sustainable manner, it is now essential to resolve these
conflicts and move towards more effective and efficient use of land and its
natural resources. Integrated physical and land-use planning and management
is an eminently practical way to achieve this. By examining all uses of land
in an integrated manner, it makes it possible to minimize conflicts, to make
the most efficient trade-offs and to link social and economic development with
environmental protection and enhancement, thus helping to achieve the
objectives of sustainable development. The essence of the integrated approach
finds expression in the coordination of the sectoral planning and management
activities concerned with the various aspects of land use and land resources.

10.2. The present chapter consists of one programme area, the integrated
approach to the planning and management of land resources, which deals with
the reorganization and, where necessary, some strengthening of the
decision-making structure, including existing policies, planning and
management procedures and methods that can assist in putting in place an
integrated approach to land resources. It does not deal with the operational
aspects of planning and management, which are more appropriately dealt with
under the relevant sectoral programmes. Since the programme deals with an
important cross-sectoral aspect of decision-making for sustainable
development, it is closely related to a number of other programmes that deal
with that issue directly.

PROGRAMME AREA

Integrated approach to the planning and management of
land resources

Basis for action

10.3. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which interact and
may compete with one another; therefore, it is desirable to plan and manage
all uses in an integrated manner. Integration should take place at two
levels, considering, on the one hand, all environmental, social and economic
factors (including, for example, impacts of the various economic and social
sectors on the environment and natural resources) and, on the other, all
environmental and resource components together (i.e., air, water, biota, land,
geological and natural resources). Integrated consideration facilitates
appropriate choices and trade-offs, thus maximizing sustainable productivity
and use. Opportunities to allocate land to different uses arise in the course
of major settlement or development projects or in a sequential fashion as
lands become available on the market. This in turn provides opportunities to
support traditional patterns of sustainable land management or to assign
protected status for conservation of biological diversity or critical
ecological services.

10.4. A number of techniques, frameworks and processes can be combined to
facilitate an integrated approach. They are the indispensable support for the
planning and management process, at the national and local level, ecosystem
or area levels and for the development of specific plans of action. Many of
its elements are already in place but need to be more widely applied, further
developed and strengthened. This programme area is concerned primarily with
providing a framework that will coordinate decision-making; the content and
operational functions are therefore not included here but are dealt with in
the relevant sectoral programmes of Agenda 21.

Objectives

10.5. The broad objective is to facilitate allocation of land to the uses
that provide the greatest sustainable benefits and to promote the transition
to a sustainable and integrated management of land resources. In doing so,
environmental, social and economic issues should be taken into consideration.
Protected areas, private property rights, the rights of indigenous people and
their communities and other local communities and the economic role of women
in agriculture and rural development, among other issues, should be taken into
account. In more specific terms, the objectives are as follows:

(a) To review and develop policies to support the best possible use
of land and the sustainable management of land resources, by not later than
1996;

(b) To improve and strengthen planning, management and evaluation
systems for land and land resources, by not later than 2000;

(c) To strengthen institutions and coordinating mechanisms for land
and land resources, by not later than 1998;

(d) To create mechanisms to facilitate the active involvement and
participation of all concerned, particularly communities and people at the
local level, in decision-making on land use and management, by not later than
1996.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Developing supportive policies and policy instruments

10.6. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional and
international organizations, should ensure that policies and policy
instruments support the best possible land use and sustainable management of
land resources. Particular attention should be given to the role of
agricultural land. To do this, they should:

(a) Develop integrated goal-setting and policy formulation at the
national, regional and local levels that takes into account environmental,
social, demographic and economic issues;

(b) Develop policies that encourage sustainable land use and
management of land resources and take the land resource base, demographic
issues and the interests of the local population into account;

(c) Review the regulatory framework, including laws, regulations and
enforcement procedures, in order to identify improvements needed to support
sustainable land use and management of land resources and restricts the
transfer of productive arable land to other uses;

(d) Apply economic instruments and develop institutional mechanisms
and incentives to encourage the best possible land use and sustainable
management of land resources;

(e) Encourage the principle of delegating policy-making to the lowest
level of public authority consistent with effective action and a locally
driven approach.

Strengthening planning and management systems

10.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional and
international organizations, should review and, if appropiate, revise planning
and management systems to facilitate an integrated approach. To do this, they
should:

(a) Adopt planning and management systems that facilitate the
integration of environmental components such as air, water, land and other
natural resources, using landscape ecological planning (LANDEP) or other
approaches that focus on, for example, an ecosystem or a watershed;

(b) Adopt strategic frameworks that allow the integration of both
developmental and environmental goals; examples of these frameworks include
sustainable livelihood systems, rural development, the World Conservation
Strategy/Caring for the Earth, primary environmental care (PEC) and others;

(c) Establish a general framework for land-use and physical planning
within which specialized and more detailed sectoral plans (e.g., for protected
areas, agriculture, forests, human settlements, rural development) can be
developed; establish intersectoral consultative bodies to streamline project
planning and implementation;

(d) Strengthen management systems for land and natural resources by
including appropriate traditional and indigenous methods; examples of these
practices include pastoralism, Hema reserves (traditional Islamic land
reserves) and terraced agriculture;

(e) Examine and, if necessary, establish innovative and flexible
approaches to programme funding;

(f) Compile detailed land capability inventories to guide sustainable
land resources allocation, management and use at the national and local
levels.

Promoting application of appropriate tools for planning and management

10.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of national and
international organizations, should promote the improvement, further
development and widespread application of planning and management tools that
facilitate an integrated and sustainable approach to land and resources. To
do this, they should:

(a) Adopt improved systems for the interpretation and integrated
analysis of data on land use and land resources;

(b) Systematically apply techniques and procedures for assessing the
environmental, social and economic impacts, risks, costs and benefits of
specific actions;

(c) Analyse and test methods to include land and ecosystem functions
and land resources values in national accounts.

Raising awareness

10.9. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
institutions and interest groups and with the support of regional and
international organizations, should launch awareness-raising campaigns to
alert and educate people on the importance of integrated land and land
resources management and the role that individuals and social groups can play
in it. This should be accompanied by provision of the means to adopt improved
practices for land use and sustainable management.

Promoting public participation

10.10. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
organizations and with the support of regional and international
organizations, should establish innovative procedures, programmes, projects
and services that facilitate and encourage the active participation of those
affected in the decision-making and implementation process, especially of
groups that have, hitherto, often been excluded, such as women, youth,
indigenous people and their communities and other local communities.

(b) Data and information

Strengthening information systems

10.11. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national
institutions and the private sector and with the support of regional and
international organizations, should strengthen the information systems
necessary for making decisions and evaluating future changes on land use and
management. The needs of both men and women should be taken into account.
To do this, they should:

(a) Strengthen information, systematic observation and assessment
systems for environmental, economic and social data related to land resources
at the global, regional, national and local levels and for land capability and
land-use and management patterns;

(b) Strengthen coordination between existing sectoral data systems on
land and land resources and strengthen national capacity to gather and assess
data;

(c) Provide the appropriate technical information necessary for
informed decision-making on land use and management in an accessible form to
all sectors of the population, especially to local communities and women;

(d) Support low-cost, community-managed systems for the collection of
comparable information on the status and processes of change of land
resources, including soils, forest cover, wildlife, climate and other
elements.

(c) International and regional coordination and cooperation

Establishing regional machinery

10.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional and
international organizations, should strengthen regional cooperation and
exchange of information on land resources. To do this, they should:

(a) Study and design regional policies to support programmes for
land-use and physical planning;

(b) Promote the development of land-use and physical plans in the
countries of the region;

(c) Design information systems and promote training;

(d) Exchange, through networks and other appropriate means,
information on experiences with the process and results of integrated and
participatory planning and management of land resources at the national and
local levels.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

10.13. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost
(1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about
$50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms.
These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been
reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that
are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

Enhancing scientific understanding of the land resources system

10.14. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
national and international scientific community and with the support of
appropriate national and international organizations, should promote and
support research, tailored to local environments, on the land resources system
and the implications for sustainable development and management practices.
Priority should be given, as appropriate, to:

(a) Assessment of land potential capability and ecosystem functions;

(b) Ecosystemic interactions and interactions between land resources
and social, economic and environmental systems;

(c) Developing indicators of sustainability for land resources, taking
into account environmental, economic, social, demographic, cultural and
political factors.

Testing research findings through pilot projects

10.15. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
national and international scientific community and with the support of the
relevant international organizations, should research and test, through pilot
projects, the applicability of improved approaches to the integrated planning
and management of land resources, including technical, social and
institutional factors.

(c) Human resource development

Enhancing education and training

10.16. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the
appropriate local authorities, non-governmental organizations and
international institutions, should promote the development of the human
resources that are required to plan and manage land and land resources
sustainably. This should be done by providing incentives for local
initiatives and by enhancing local management capacity, particularly of women,
through:

(a) Emphasizing interdisciplinary and integrative approaches in the
curricula of schools and technical, vocational and university training;

(b) Training all relevant sectors concerned to deal with land
resources in an integrated and sustainable manner;

(c) Training communities, relevant extension services, community-based
groups and non-governmental organizations on land management techniques and
approaches applied successfully elsewhere.

(d) Capacity-building

Strengthening technological capacity

10.17. Governments at the appropriate level, in cooperation with other
Governments and with the support of relevant international organizations,
should promote focused and concerted efforts for education and training and
the transfer of techniques and technologies that support the various aspects
of the sustainable planning and management process at the national,
state/provincial and local levels.

Strengthening institutions

10.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of appropriate
international organizations, should:

(a) Review and, where appropriate, revise the mandates of institutions
that deal with land and natural resources to include explicitly the
interdisciplinary integration of environmental, social and economic issues;

(b) Strengthen coordinating mechanisms between institutions that deal
with land-use and resources management to facilitate integration of sectoral
concerns and strategies;

(c) Strengthen local decision-making capacity and improve coordination
with higher levels.

END OF CHAPTER 10

Chapter 11

COMBATING DEFORESTATION

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Sustaining the multiple roles and functions of all types
of forests, forest lands and woodlands

Basis for action

11.1. There are major weaknesses in the policies, methods and mechanisms
adopted to support and develop the multiple ecological, economic, social and
cultural roles of trees, forests and forest lands. Many developed countries
are confronted with the effects of air pollution and fire damage on their
forests. More effective measures and approaches are often required at the
national level to improve and harmonize policy formulation, planning and
programming; legislative measures and instruments; development patterns;
participation of the general public, especially women and indigenous people;
involvement of youth; roles of the private sector, local organizations,
non-governmental organizations and cooperatives; development of technical and
multidisciplinary skills and quality of human resources; forestry extension
and public education; research capability and support; administrative
structures and mechanisms, including intersectoral coordination,
decentralization and responsibility and incentive systems; and dissemination
of information and public relations. This is especially important to ensure
a rational and holistic approach to the sustainable and environmentally sound
development of forests. The need for securing the multiple roles of forests
and forest lands through adequate and appropriate institutional strengthening
has been repeatedly emphasized in many of the reports, decisions and
recommendations of FAO, ITTO, UNEP, the World Bank, IUCN and other
organizations.

Objectives

11.2. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:

(a) To strengthen forest-related national institutions, to enhance the
scope and effectiveness of activities related to the management, conservation
and sustainable development of forests, and to effectively ensure the
sustainable utilization and production of forests' goods and services in both
the developed and the developing countries; by the year 2000, to strengthen
the capacities and capabilities of national institutions to enable them to
acquire the necessary knowledge for the protection and conservation of
forests, as well as to expand their scope and, correspondingly, enhance the
effectiveness of programmes and activities related to the management and
development of forests;

(b) To strengthen and improve human, technical and professional skills,
as well as expertise and capabilities to effectively formulate and implement
policies, plans, programmes, research and projects on management, conservation
and sustainable development of all types of forests and forest-based
resources, and forest lands inclusive, as well as other areas from which
forest benefits can be derived.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

11.3 Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional,
subregional and international organizations, should, where necessary, enhance
institutional capability to promote the multiple roles and functions of all
types of forests and vegetation inclusive of other related lands and
forest-based resources in supporting sustainable development and environmental
conservation in all sectors. This should be done, wherever possible and
necessary, by strengthening and/or modifying the existing structures and
arrangements, and by improving cooperation and coordination of their
respective roles. Some of the major activities in this regard are as follows:

(a) Rationalizing and strengthening administrative structures and
mechanisms, including provision of adequate levels of staff and allocation of
responsibilities, decentralization of decision-making, provision of
infrastructural facilities and equipment, intersectoral coordination and an
effective system of communication;

(b) Promoting participation of the private sector, labour unions, rural
cooperatives, local communities, indigenous people, youth, women, user groups
and non-governmental organizations in forest-related activities, and access
to information and training programmes within the national context;

(c) Reviewing and, if necessary, revising measures and programmes
relevant to all types of forests and vegetation, inclusive of other related
lands and forest-based resources, and relating them to other land uses and
development policies and legislation; promoting adequate legislation and other
measures as a basis against uncontrolled conversion to other types of land
uses;

(d) Developing and implementing plans and programmes, including
definition of national and, if necessary, regional and subregional goals,
programmes and criteria for their implementation and subsequent improvement;

(e) Establishing, developing and sustaining an effective system of
forest extension and public education to ensure better awareness, appreciation
and management of forests with regard to the multiple roles and values of
trees, forests and forest lands;

(f) Establishing and/or strengthening institutions for forest education
and training, as well as forestry industries, for developing an adequate cadre
of trained and skilled staff at the professional, technical and vocational
levels, with emphasis on youth and women;

(g) Establishing and strengthening capabilities for research related to
the different aspects of forests and forest products, for example, on the
sustainable management of forests, research on biodiversity, on the effects
of air-borne pollutants, on traditional uses of forest resources by local
populations and indigenous people, and on improving market returns and other
non-market values from the management of forests.

(b) Data and information

11.4. Governments at the appropriate level, with the assistance and
cooperation of international, regional, subregional and bilateral agencies,
where relevant, should develop adequate databases and baseline information
necessary for planning and programme evaluation. Some of the more specific
activities include the following:

(a) Collecting, compiling and regularly updating and distributing
information on land classification and land use, including data on forest
cover, areas suitable for afforestation, endangered species, ecological
values, traditional/indigenous land use values, biomass and productivity,
correlating demographic, socio-economic and forest resources information at
the micro- and macro-levels, and undertaking periodic analyses of forest
programmes;

(b) Establishing linkages with other data systems and sources relevant
to supporting forest management, conservation and development, while further
developing or reinforcing existing systems such as geographic information
systems, as appropriate;

(c) Creating mechanisms to ensure public access to this information.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

11.5. Governments at the appropriate level and institutions should cooperate
in the provision of expertise and other support and the promotion of
international research efforts, in particular with a view to enhancing
transfer of technology and specialized training and ensuring access to
experiences and research results. There is need for strengthening
coordination and improving the performance of existing forest-related
international organizations in providing technical cooperation and support to
interested countries for the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests.

Means of implementation

(a) Financial and cost evaluation

11.6. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $2.5 billion, including about $860 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

11.7. The planning, research and training activities specified will form the
scientific and technological means for implementing the programme, as well as
its output. The systems, methodology and know-how generated by the programme
will help improve efficiency. Some of the specific steps involved should
include:

(a) Analysing achievements, constraints and social issues for supporting
programme formulation and implementation;

(b) Analysing research problems and research needs, research planning
and implementation of specific research projects;

(c) Assessing needs for human resources, skill development and training;

(d) Developing, testing and applying appropriate
methodologies/approaches
in implementing forest programmes and plans.

(c) Human resource development

11.8. The specific components of forest education and training will
effectively contribute to human resource development. These include:
(a) Launching of graduate and post-graduate degree, specialization and
research programmes;

(b) Strengthening of pre-service, in-service and extension service
training programmes at the technical and vocational levels, including training
of trainers/teachers, and developing curriculum and teaching
materials/methods;

(c) Special training for staff of national forest-related organizations
in aspects such as project formulation, evaluation and periodical evaluations.

(d) Capacity-building

11.9. This programme area is specifically concerned with capacity-building
in the forest sector and all programme activities specified contribute to that
end. In building new and strengthened capacities, full advantage should be
taken of the existing systems and experience.

B. Enhancing the protection, sustainable management and
conservation of all forests, and the greening of
degraded areas, through forest rehabilitation,
afforestation, reforestation and other rehabilitative
means

Basis for action

11.10. Forests world wide have been and are being threatened by uncontrolled
degradation and conversion to other types of land uses, influenced by
increasing human needs; agricultural expansion; and environmentally harmful
mismanagement, including, for example, lack of adequate forest-fire control
and anti-poaching measures, unsustainable commercial logging, overgrazing and
unregulated browsing, harmful effects of airborne pollutants, economic
incentives and other measures taken by other sectors of the economy. The
impacts of loss and degradation of forests are in the form of soil erosion;
loss of biological diversity, damage to wildlife habitats and degradation of
watershed areas, deterioration of the quality of life and reduction of the
options for development.

11.11. The present situation calls for urgent and consistent action for
conserving and sustaining forest resources. The greening of suitable areas,
in all its component activities, is an effective way of increasing public
awareness and participation in protecting and managing forest resources. It
should include the consideration of land use and tenure patterns and local
needs and should spell out and clarify the specific objectives of the
different types of greening activities.

Objectives

11.12. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:

(a) To maintain existing forests through conservation and management,
and sustain and expand areas under forest and tree cover, in appropriate areas
of both developed and developing countries, through the conservation of
natural forests, protection, forest rehabilitation, regeneration,
afforestation, reforestation and tree planting, with a view to maintaining or
restoring the ecological balance and expanding the contribution of forests to
human needs and welfare;

(b) To prepare and implement, as appropriate, national forestry action
programmes and/or plans for the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests. These programmes and/or plans should be integrated
with other land uses. In this context, country-driven national forestry
action programmes and/or plans under the Tropical Forestry Action Programme
are currently being implemented in more than 80 countries, with the support
of the international community;

(c) To ensure sustainable management and, where appropriate,
conservation of existing and future forest resources;

(d) To maintain and increase the ecological, biological, climatic,
socio-cultural and economic contributions of forest resources;

(e) To facilitate and support the effective implementation of the
non-legally binding authoritative statement of principles for a global
consensus on the management, conservation and sustainable development of all
types of forests, adopted by the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development, and on the basis of the implementation of these principles to
consider the need for and the feasibility of all kinds of appropriate
internationally agreed arrangements to promote international cooperation on
forest management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of
forests, including afforestation, reforestation and rehabilitation.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

11.13. Governments should recognize the importance of categorizing forests,
within the framework of long-term forest conservation and management policies,
into different forest types and setting up sustainable units in every
region/watershed with a view to securing the conservation of forests.
Governments, with the participation of the private sector, non-governmental
organizations, local community groups, indigenous people, women, local
government units and the public at large, should act to maintain and expand
the existing vegetative cover wherever ecologically, socially and economically
feasible, through technical cooperation and other forms of support. Major
activities to be considered include:

(a) Ensuring the sustainable management of all forest ecosystems and
woodlands, through improved proper planning, management and timely
implementation of silvicultural operations, including inventory and relevant
research, as well as rehabilitation of degraded natural forests to restore
productivity and environmental contributions, giving particular attention to
human needs for economic and ecological services, wood-based energy,
agroforestry, non-timber forest products and services, watershed and soil
protection, wildlife management, and forest genetic resources;

(b) Establishing, expanding and managing, as appropriate to each
national context, protected area systems, which includes systems of
conservation units for their environmental, social and spiritual functions and
values, including conservation of forests in representative ecological systems
and landscapes, primary old-growth forests, conservation and management of
wildlife, nomination of World Heritage Sites under the World Heritage
Convention, as appropriate, conservation of genetic resources, involving
in situ and ex situ measures and undertaking supportive measures to ensure
sustainable utilization of biological resources and conservation of biological
diversity and the traditional forest habitats of indigenous people, forest
dwellers and local communities;

(c) Undertaking and promoting buffer and transition zone management;

(d) Carrying out revegetation in appropriate mountain areas, highlands,
bare lands, degraded farm lands, arid and semi-arid lands and coastal areas
for combating desertification and preventing erosion problems and for other
protective functions and national programmes for rehabilitation of degraded
lands, including community forestry, social forestry, agroforestry and
silvipasture, while also taking into account the role of forests as national
carbon reservoirs and sinks;

(e) Developing industrial and non-industrial planted forests in order
to support and promote national ecologically sound afforestation and
reforestation/regeneration programmes in suitable sites, including upgrading
of existing planted forests of both industrial and non-industrial and
commercial purpose to increase their contribution to human needs and to offset
pressure on primary/old growth forests. Measures should be taken to promote
and provide intermediate yields and to improve the rate of returns on
investments in planted forests, through interplanting and underplanting
valuable crops;

(f) Developing/strengthening a national and/or master plan for planted
forests as a priority, indicating, inter alia, the location, scope and
species, and specifying areas of existing planted forests requiring
rehabilitation, taking into account the economic aspect for future planted
forest development, giving emphasis to native species;

(g) Increasing the protection of forests from pollutants, fire, pests
and diseases and other human-made interferences such as forest poaching,
mining and unmitigated shifting cultivation, the uncontrolled introduction of
exotic plant and animal species, as well as developing and accelerating
research for a better understanding of problems relating to the management and
regeneration of all types of forests; strengthening and/or establishing
appropriate measures to assess and/or check inter-border movement of plants
and related materials;

(h) Stimulating development of urban forestry for the greening of urban,
peri-urban and rural human settlements for amenity, recreation and production
purposes and for protecting trees and groves;

(i) Launching or improving opportunities for particpation of all people,
including youth, women, indigenous people and local communities in the
formulation, development and implementation of forest-related programmes and
other activities, taking due account of the local needs and cultural values;

(j) Limiting and aiming to halt destructive shifting cultivation by
addressing the underlying social and ecological causes.

(b) Data and information

11.14. Management-related activities should involve collection, compilation
and analysis of data/information, including baseline surveys. Some of the
specific activities include the following:

(a) Carrying out surveys and developing and implementing land-use plans
for appropriate greening/planting/afforestation/reforestation/forest
rehabilitation;

(b) Consolidating and updating land-use and forest inventory and
management information for management and land-use planning of wood and
non-wood resources, including data on shifting cultivation and other agents
of forest destruction;

(c) Consolidating information on genetic resources and related
biotechnology, including surveys and studies, as necessary;

(d) Carrying out surveys and research on local/indigenous knowledge of
trees and forests and their uses to improve the planning and implementation
of sustainable forest management;

(e) Compiling and analysing research data on species/site interaction
of species used in planted forests and assessing the potential impact on
forests of climatic change, as well as effects of forests on climate, and
initiating in-depth studies on the carbon cycle relating to different forest
types to provide scientific advice and technical support;

(f) Establishing linkages with other data/information sources that
relate to sustainable management and use of forests and improving access to
data and information;

(g) Developing and intensifying research to improve knowledge and
understanding of problems and natural mechanisms related to the management and
rehabilitation of forests, including research on fauna and its interrelation
with forests;

(h) Consolidating information on forest conditions and site-influencing
immissions and emissions.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

11.15. The greening of appropriate areas is a task of global importance and
impact. The international and regional community should provide technical
cooperation and other means for this programme area. Specific activities of
an international nature, in support of national efforts, should include the
following:

(a) Increasing cooperative actions to reduce pollutants and
trans-boundary impacts affecting the health of trees and forests and
conservation of representative ecosystems;

(b) Coordinating regional and subregional research on carbon
sequestration, air pollution and other environmental issues;

(c) Documenting and exchanging information/experience for the benefit
of countries with similar problems and prospects;

(d) Strengthening the coordination and improving the capacity and
ability of intergovernmental organizations such as FAO, ITTO, UNEP and UNESCO
to provide technical support for the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests, including support for the negotiation of the
International Tropical Timber Agreement of 1983, due in 1992/93.

Means of implementation

(a) Financial and cost evaluation

11.16. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $10 billion, including about $3.7 billion from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

11.17. Data analysis, planning, research, transfer/development of technology
and/or training activities form an integral part of the programme activities,
providing the scientific and technological means of implementation. National
institutions should:

(a) Develop feasibility studies and operational planning related to
major forest activities;

(b) Develop and apply environmentally sound technology relevant to the
various activities listed;

(c) Increase action related to genetic improvement and application of
biotechnology for improving productivity and tolerance to environmental stress
and including, for example, tree breeding, seed technology, seed procurement
networks, germ-plasm banks, "in vitro" techniques, and in situ and ex situ
conservation.

(c) Human resource development

11.18. Essential means for effectively implementing the activities include
training and development of appropriate skills, working facilities and
conditions, public motivation and awareness. Specific activities include:

(a) Providing specialized training in planning, management,
environmental conservation, biotechnology etc.;

(b) Establishing demonstration areas to serve as models and training
facilities;

(c) Supporting local organizations, communities, non-governmental
organizations and private land owners, in particular women, youth, farmers and
indigenous people/shifting cultivators, through extension and provision of
inputs and training.

(d) Capacity-building

11.19. National Governments, the private sector, local
organizations/communities, indigenous people, labour unions and
non-governmental organizations should develop capacities, duly supported by
relevant international organizations, to implement the programme activities.
Such capacities should be developed and strengthened in harmony with the
programme activities. Capacity-building activities include policy and legal
frameworks, national institution building, human resource development,
development of research and technology, development of infrastructure,
enhancement of public awareness etc.

C. Promoting efficient utilization and assessment to recover
the full valuation of the goods and services provided by
forests, forest lands and woodlands

Basis for action

11.20. The vast potential of forests and forest lands as a major resource for
development is not yet fully realized. The improved management of forests can
increase the production of goods and services and, in particular, the yield
of wood and non-wood forest products, thus helping to generate additional
employment and income, additional value through processing and trade of forest
products, increased contribution to foreign exchange earnings, and increased
return on investment. Forest resources, being renewable, can be sustainably
managed in a manner that is compatible with environmental conservation. The
implications of the harvesting of forest resources for the other values of the
forest should be taken fully into consideration in the development of forest
policies. It is also possible to increase the value of forests through
non-damaging uses such as eco-tourism and the managed supply of genetic
materials. Concerted action is needed in order to increase people's
perception of the value of forests and of the benefits they provide. The
survival of forests and their continued contribution to human welfare depends
to a great extent on succeeding in this endeavour.

Objectives

11.21. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:

(a) To improve recognition of the social, economic and ecological values
of trees, forests and forest lands, including the consequences of the damage
caused by the lack of forests; to promote methodologies with a view to
incorporating social, economic and ecological values of trees, forests and
forest lands into the national economic accounting systems; to ensure their
sustainable management in a way that is consistent with land use,
environmental considerations and development needs;

(b) To promote efficient, rational and sustainable utilization of all
types of forests and vegetation inclusive of other related lands and
forest-based resources, through the development of efficient forest-based
processing industries, value-adding secondary processing and trade in forest
products, based on sustainably managed forest resources and in accordance with
plans that integrate all wood and non-wood values of forests;

(c) To promote more efficient and sustainable use of forests and trees
for fuelwood and energy supplies;

(d) To promote more comprehensive use and economic contributions of
forest areas by incorporating eco-tourism into forest management and planning.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities
11.22. Governments, with the support of the private sector, scientific
institutions, indigenous people, non-governmental organizations, cooperatives
and entrepreneurs, where appropriate, should undertake the following
activities, properly coordinated at the national level, with financial and
technical cooperation from international organizations:

(a) Carrying out detailed investment studies, supply-demand
harmonization and environmental impact analysis to rationalize and improve
trees and forest utilization and to develop and establish appropriate
incentive schemes and regulatory measures, including tenurial arrangements,
to provide a favourable investment climate and promote better management;

(b) Formulating scientifically sound criteria and guidelines for the
management, conservation and sustainable development of all types of forests;

(c) Improving environmentally sound methods and practices of forest
harvesting, which are ecologically sound and economically viable, including
planning and management, improved use of equipment, storage and transportation
to reduce and, if possible, maximize the use of waste and improve value of
both wood and non-wood forest products;

(d) Promoting the better use and development of natural forests and
woodlands, including planted forests, wherever possible, through appropriate
and environmentally sound and economically viable activities, including
silvicultural practices and management of other plant and animal species;

(e) Promoting and supporting the downstream processing of forest
products to increase retained value and other benefits;

(f) Promoting/popularizing non-wood forest products and other forms of
forest resources, apart from fuelwood (e.g., medicinal plants, dyes, fibres,
gums, resins, fodder, cultural products, rattan, bamboo) through programmes
and social forestry/participatory forest activities, including research on
their processing and uses;

(g) Developing, expanding and/or improving the effectiveness and
efficiency of forest-based processing industries, both wood and non-wood
based, involving such aspects as efficient conversion technology and improved
sustainable utilization of harvesting and process residues; promoting
underutilized species in natural forests through research, demonstration and
commercialization; promoting value-adding secondary processing for improved
employment, income and retained value; and promoting/improving markets for,
and trade in, forest products through relevant institutions, policies and
facilities;

(h) Promoting and supporting the management of wildlife, as well as
eco-tourism, including farming, and encouraging and supporting the husbandry
and cultivation of wild species, for improved rural income and employment,
ensuring economic and social benefits without harmful ecological impacts;

(i) Promoting appropriate small-scale forest-based enterprises for
supporting rural development and local entrepreneurship;

(j) Improving and promoting methodologies for a comprehensive assessment
that will capture the full value of forests, with a view to including that
value in the market-based pricing structure of wood and non-wood based
products;

(k) Harmonizing sustainable development of forests with national
development needs and trade policies that are compatible with the ecologically
sound use of forest resources, using, for example, the ITTO Guidelines for
Sustainable Management of Tropical Forests;

(l) Developing, adopting and strengthening national programmes for
accounting the economic and non-economic value of forests.

(b) Data and information

11.23. The objectives and management-related activities presuppose data and
information analysis, feasibility studies, market surveys and review of
technological information. Some of the relevant activities include:

(a) Undertaking analysis of supply and demand for forest products and
services, to ensure efficiency in their utilization, wherever necessary;

(b) Carrying out investment analysis and feasibility studies, including
environmental impact assessment, for establishing forest-based processing
enterprises;

(c) Conducting research on the properties of currently underutilized
species for their promotion and commercialization;

(d) Supporting market surveys of forest products for trade promotion and
intelligence;

(e) Facilitating the provision of adequate technological information as
a measure to promote better utilization of forest resources.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

11.24. Cooperation and assistance of international organizations and the
international community in technology transfer, specialization and promotion
of fair terms of trade, without resorting to unilateral restrictions and/or
bans on forest products contrary to GATT and other multilateral trade
agreements, the application of appropriate market mechanisms and incentives
will help in addressing global environmental concerns. Strengthening the
coordination and performance of existing international organizations, in
particular FAO, UNIDO, UNESCO, UNEP, ITC/UNCTAD/GATT, ITTO and ILO, for
providing technical assistance and guidance in this programme area is another
specific activity.

Means of implementation

(a) Financial and cost evaluation

11.25. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $18 billion, including about $880 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

11.26. The programme activities presuppose major research efforts and
studies, as well as improvement of technology. This should be coordinated by
national Governments, in collaboration with and supported by relevant
international organizations and institutions. Some of the specific components
include:

(a) Research on properties of wood and non-wood products and their uses,
to promote improved utilization;

(b) Development and application of environmentally sound and
less-polluting technology for forest utilization;

(c) Models and techniques of outlook analysis and development planning;

(d) Scientific investigations on the development and utilization of
non-timber forest products;

(e) Appropriate methodologies to comprehensively assess the value of
forests.

(c) Human resource development

11.27. The success and effectiveness of the programme area depends on the
availability of skilled personnel. Specialized training is an important
factor in this regard. New emphasis should be given to the incorporation of
women. Human resource development for programme implementation, in
quantitative and qualitative terms, should include:

(a) Developing required specialized skills to implement the programme,
including establishing special training facilities at all levels;

(b) Introducing/strengthening refresher training courses, including
fellowships and study tours, to update skills and technological know-how and
improve productivity;

(c) Strengthening capability for research, planning, economic analysis,
periodical evaluations and evaluation, relevant to improved utilization of
forest resources;

(d) Promoting efficiency and capability of private and cooperative
sectors through provision of facilities and incentives.

(d) Capacity-building

11.28. Capacity-building, including strengthening of existing capacity, is
implicit in the programme activities. Improving administration, policy and
plans, national institutions, human resources, research and scientific
capabilities, technology development, and periodical evaluations and
evaluation are important components of capacity-building.

D. Establishing and/or strengthening capacities for the
planning, assessment and systematic observations
of forests and related programmes, projects and
activities, including commercial trade and processes

Basis for action

11.29. Assessment and systematic observations are essential components of
long-term planning, for evaluating effects, quantitatively and qualitatively,
and for rectifying inadequacies. This mechanism, however, is one of the often
neglected aspects of forest resources, management, conservation and
development. In many cases, even the basic information related to the area
and type of forests, existing potential and volume of harvest is lacking. In
many developing countries, there is a lack of structures and mechanisms to
carry out these functions. There is an urgent need to rectify this situation
for a better understanding of the role and importance of forests and to
realistically plan for their effective conservation, management, regeneration,
and sustainable development.

Objectives

11.30. The objectives of this programme area are as follows:

(a) To strengthen or establish systems for the assessment and systematic
observations of forests and forest lands with a view to assessing the impacts
of programmes, projects and activities on the quality and extent of forest
resources, land available for afforestation, and land tenure, and to integrate
the systems in a continuing process of research and in-depth analysis, while
ensuring necessary modifications and improvements for planning and
decision-making. Specific emphasis should be given to the participation of
rural people in these processes;

(b) To provide economists, planners, decision makers and local
communities with sound and adequate updated information on forests and forest
land resources.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

11.31. Governments and institutions, in collaboration, where necessary, with
appropriate international agencies and organizations, universities and
non-governmental organizations, should undertake assessments and systematic
observations of forests and related programmes and processes with a view to
their continuous improvement. This should be linked to related activities of
research and management and, wherever possible, be built upon existing
systems. Major activities to be considered are:

(a) Assessing and carrying out systematic observations of the
quantitative and qualitative situation and changes of forest cover and forest
resources endowments, including land classification, land use and updates of
its status, at the appropriate national level, and linking this activity, as
appropriate, with planning as a basis for policy and programme formulation;

(b) Establishing national assessment and systematic observation systems
and evaluation of programmes and processes, including establishment of
definitions, standards, norms and intercalibration methods, and the capability
for initiating corrective actions as well as improving the formulation and
implementation of programmes and projects;

(c) Making estimates of impacts of activities affecting forestry
developments and conservation proposals, in terms of key variables such as
developmental goals, benefits and costs, contributions of forests to other
sectors, community welfare, environmental conditions and biological diversity
and their impacts at the local, regional and global levels, where appropriate,
to assess the changing technological and financial needs of countries;

(d) Developing national systems of forest resource assessment and
valuation, including necessary research and data analysis, which account for,
where possible, the full range of wood and non-wood forest products and
services, and incorporating results in plans and strategies and, where
feasible, in national systems of accounts and planning;

(e) Establishing necessary intersectoral and programme linkages,
including improved access to information, in order to support a holistic
approach to planning and programming.

(b) Data and information

11.32. Reliable data and information are vital to this programme area.
National Governments, in collaboration, where necessary, with relevant
international organizations, should, as appropriate, undertake to improve data
and information continuously and to ensure its exchange. Major activities to
be considered are as follows:

(a) Collecting, consolidating and exchanging existing information and
establishing baseline information on aspects relevant to this programme area;

(b) Harmonizing the methodologies for programmes involving data and
information activities to ensure accuracy and consistency;

(c) Undertaking special surveys on, for example, land capability and
suitability for afforestation action;

(d) Enhancing research support and improving access to and exchange of
research results.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

11.33. The international community should extend to the Governments concerned
necessary technical and financial support for implementing this programme
area, including consideration of the following activities:

(a) Establishing conceptual framework and formulating acceptable
criteria, norms and definitions for systematic observations and assessment of
forest resources;

(b) Establishing and strengthening national institutional coordination
mechanisms for forest assessment and systematic observation activities;
(c) Strengthening existing regional and global networks for the exchange
of relevant information;

(d) Strengthening the capacity and ability and improving the performance
of existing international organizations, such as the Consultative Group on
International Agricultural Research (CGIAR), FAO, ITTO, UNEP, UNESCO and
UNIDO, to provide technical support and guidance in this programme area.

Means of implementation

(a) Financial and cost evaluation

11.34. The secretariat of the Conference has estimated the average total
annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to
be about $750 million, including about $230 million from the international
community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and
order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments.
Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional,
will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes
Governments decide upon for implementation.

11.35. Accelerating development consists of implementing the
management-related and data/information activities cited above. Activities
related to global environmental issues are those that will contribute to
global information for assessing/evaluating/addressing environmental issues
on a worldwide basis. Strengthening the capacity of international
institutions consists of enhancing the technical staff and the executing
capacity of several international organizations in order to meet the
requirements of countries.

(b) Scientific and technological means

11.36. Assessment and systematic observation activities involve major
research efforts, statistical modelling and technological innovation. These
have been internalized into the management-related activities. The activities
in turn will improve the technological and scientific content of assessment
and periodical evaluations. Some of the specific scientific and technological
components included under these activities are:

(a) Developing technical, ecological and economic methods and models
related to periodical evaluations and evaluation;

(b) Developing data systems, data processing and statistical modelling;

(c) Remote sensing and ground surveys;

(d) Developing geographic information systems;

(e) Assessing and improving technology.

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Entertainment => Politics and Political Issues => Topic started by: Shammu on August 08, 2006, 07:22:26 PM